THE ' 



APOSTOLICAL 



AND 



PRIMITIVE CHURCH, 



POPULAR IN ITS GOVERNMENT, AND SIMPLE 
IN ITS WORSHIP. 



BY 

LYMAN COLEMAN, 

AUTHOR OF « ANTIQUITIES oV THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 



WITH AN INTRODUCTORY ESSAY, 
BY 

Dr. AUGUSTUS NEANDER, 

PROFESSOR OF THEOLOGY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF BERLIN. 



<S*contr 22Mtfott, 



BOSTON: 
GOULD, KENDALL AND LINCOLN, 

59 Washington Street. 

1844. 






4- 



% 



Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1844, by 

GOULD, KENDALL & LINCOLN, 
in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of Massachusetts. 



fe* change. 
10 6 



JUN 16 J942 

Access ions Li vision 
j*L^IT:-RYoJC0NGR SS 



ANDOVER: 

ALLEN, MORRILL AND WARD WELL, 

PRINTERS. 






Xff 



PREFACE 



TO THE FIRST EDITION. . / 



The object of the author, in the following work, is to com- 
mend to the consideration of the reader the admirable simplici- 
ty of the government and worship of the primitive church, in 
opposition to the polity and ceremonials of prelacy. 

Tn the prosecution of this object, he has sought, under the di- 
rection of the best guides, to go to the original sources, and first 
and chiefly to draw from them. On the constitution and gov- 
ernment of the church, none have written with greater ability, 
or with more extensive and searching erudition, than Mosheim, 
Planck, Neander and Rothe. These have been his principal re- 
liance ; and after these a great variety of authors. 

If the reader object, that the authorities cited are beyond his 
reach, or are recorded in a language to him unknown, the wri- 
ter can only say, that he has endeavored to collect the best au- 
thorities, wherever they might be found. When embodied in 
the pages of the work, they are given in a translation ; and, if 
of special importance, the original is inserted in the margin, for 
the examination of the scholar. 

The work has been prepared with an anxious endeavor to sus- 
tain the positions advanced, by references sufficiently copious, 
pertinent and authoritative ; and yet to guard against an osten- 
tatious affectation in the accumulation of authorities. Several 
hundred have indeed been entered in these pages ; but many 
more, that have fallen under the eye of the writer, have been 
rejected. Much labor, of which the reader probably will make 



IV PREFACE. 

small account, has been expended in an endeavor to authenti- 
cate those that are retained, and to give him an explicit direction to 
them. The work has been written with studied brevity, and a 
uniform endeavor to make it at once concise, yet complete, and 
suggestive of principles. 

In the prosecution of these labors, the author has received 
much encouragement and many important suggestions, from 
friends, whose services he holds in grateful remembrance. For 
such favors he is particularly indebted to Professor Park, of the 
Theological Seminary in this place. 

Above all, it is the author's grateful duty publicly to express 
his acknowledgments to Dr. Neander, not only for his Intro- 
ductory Essay, but for the uniform kindness of his counsels in 
the preparation of the several parts of this work. The writer 
can say nothing to add to the reputation of this eminent scholar, 
distinguished alike for his private virtues, his public services, 
and his vast and varied erudition. He can only express his ob- 
ligations for the advantages derived from the contributions and 
counsels of this great historian, for which the reader, in com- 
mon with the writer of the following pages, will owe his grate- 
ful acknowledgments. For the sentiments here expressed, how- 
ever, the writer is alone responsible. 

The translation of the Introduction was made in Berlin; and 
after a careful comparison with the original by Dr. Neander, re- 
ceived his unqualified approbation. It is, therefore, to be re- 
ceived as an authentic expression of his sentiments on the seve- 
ral topics to which it relates. 

In the preparation of this work, the author has studiously 
sought to write neither as a Congregationalist, nor as a Presby- 
terian exclusively ; but as the advocate of a free and popular 
government in the church ; and of simplicity in worship, in har- 
mony with the free spirit of the Christian religion. It is enough 
for the author, and, as he would hope, for both Congregational- 
ists and Presbyterians, if the church is set free from the bondage of 
a prelatical hierarchy ; and trained, by simple and expressive 



PREFACE. V 

rites, to worship God in spirit and in truth. In opposition to 
the assumptions of .prelacy, there is common ground sufficient 
for all the friends of a popular government in the church of 
Christ to occupy. In the topics discussed in the following pages 
they have equal interest, whether they would adopt a purely 
democratical or a representative form of government as the best 
means of defending the popular rights of the church. We 
heartily wish indeed for all true churchmen a closer conformity 
to the primitive pattern in government and in worship ; but we 
have no controversy even with them on minor points, provided 
we may still be united with them in the higher principles of 
Christian fellowship and love. The writer has the happiness 
to number among the members of the Episcopal church some 
of his most cherished friends, to whose sentiments he would be 
sorry to do violence by anything that may appear in these 
pages. 

Indeed, the great controversy of the day is not with Protestant 
Episcopacy, as such ; it is rather with Formalism. Formalism 
wherever seen, by whatever name it is known, — this is the great 
antagonist principle of spiritual Christianity. Here the church 
is brought to a crisis, great and fearful in prospect, and mo- 
mentous, for good or for evil, in its final results. The struggle 
at issue is between a spiritual and a formal religion ; — against a 
religion which substitutes the outward form for the inward spi- 
rit ; which exalts sacraments, ordinances and rites, into the place 
of Christ himself ; and disguises, under the covering of imposing 
ceremonials, the great doctrines of the cross. 

The church is at issue with this religion under the forms of 
high church Prelacy, " Puseyism," and Popery. The present 
struggle began in England ; but when or where or how it will 
end, who can tell ? Dr. Pusey himself declares that on the issue 
of it, " hangs the destiny of the church of England." The Tract- 
arians all avow, — " that two schemes of doctrine, the Genevan 
and the Catholic, are probably for the last time struggling with- 
in that church," But the conflict is not confined to England. 
1* 



VI PREFACE. 

The signs of the times, everywhere darkly portentous, presage 
a similar conflict to the church of Christ universally. 

In this eventful crisis we are urgently pressed to a renewed 
examination of the apostolical and primitive polity of the church 
in government and in worship ; for under cover of these the 
warfare of formalism is now waged. These are the prominent 
points, both of attack and of defence, to which the eye of the 
minister, the theological student, and the intelligent Christian of 
every name, should be turned. Let them fall back on that spi- 
ritual Christianity which Christ and his apostles taught. Let 
them, in doctrine, in discipline, and in worship, entrench them- 
selves within the strongholds of this religion ; and here, in calm 
reliance upon the great Captain of our salvation, let them await 
the issue of the contest. 

Hitherto the great body of the people have been left to gather 
up information upon this branch of religious knowledge, as they 
could ; and the most have been content with a blind acquies- 
cence in the customs of their own church. A due degree of 
knowledge on this subject is apparently possessed by very few 
of our leading men, and is by no means the property generally 
of clergymen and theological students. 

To what purpose is it now merely to follow the history of the 
church, century by century, through the recital of her suffer- 
ings ? The times are changed, and a corresponding change is 
required in the study of ecclesiastical history. This study is 
chiefly important, for existing exigencies, to illustrate the usages, 
the rites, the government of the church, and the perversion of 
these to promote the ends of bigotiy, intolerance and supersti- 
tion. Besides, we have seen, for some years past, an influence 
stealing silently upon the public mind, and alluring many young 
clergymen and candidates for the ministry from the fold of then 
fathers ; — an influence to be counteracted by a better under- 
standing of our own government and worship. Bishop Gris- 
wold stated in 1841, that of "two hundred and eighty persons 
ordained by him, two hundred and seven came from other deno- 



PREFACE. VU 

minations." And another bishop says, " From the most accu- 
rate investigation that can be made, I am led to believe, that 
about three hundred clergymen and licentiates of other denomi- 
nations, have within the last thirty years, sought the ministerial 
commission from the hands of bishops of that church; and, that 
at least two-thirds were not originally, by education, Episcopali- 
ans, but have come from other folds." These facts afford mat- 
ter for serious inquiry. These three hundred were not originally 
Episcopalians. Were they, " by education" anything else ? Would 
they have strayed away in such numbers from their own fold, 
had they been duly instructed in the principles of that order to 
which they originally belonged ? 

The author is deeply sensible of the magnitude and difficulty 
of the work which he has undertaken ; and with no affected 
modesty, avows the mifeigned diffidence with which he com- 
mends it to the public. Would it were worthier, and better 
fitted for the great end proposed by it. But he has done what 
he could, and finds his reward in the consciousness of having 
labored honestly in a righteous cause, and in the hope of doing 
something for the promotion of that religious system which 
shall enable the true worshippers to worship the Father in spirit 
and in truth. Such a religious system, he believes most firm- 
ly, must ever find its truest expression in rites of worship few 
and simple, and in a government administered in every part 
and every particular by the people ; — in a ritual without a 
prayer-book ; and a church without a bishop. 

Andover, February, 1844. 



PREFACE 



TO THE SECOND EDITION. 



In this edition the plan of the work, together with the gen- 
eral course of the argument and illustration, remains unaltered. 
Its pages, however, have been carefully revised by the author. 
The result of this revision will appear in various additions and 
improvements ; especially, it is hoped, in a general freedom 
from those inaccuracies of expression, and those errors of the 
press, which circumstances rendered unavoidable in the first 
edition. The author has not been able to superintend the print- 
ing of the present edition ; but this trust has been so faithfully 
discharged by the gentlemen who kindly assumed the supervis- 
ion of the press, that he has no occasion to regret his own ab- 
sence. With grateful acknowledgments to those gentlemen 
for their important services, and to the various friends who 
have interested themselves in the work, and from whom he has 
received many valuable suggestions, the author has the plea- 
sure again to commend the " Primitive Church," to the consid- 
eration of the public. 

Auburn, N. Y., August, 1844. 



CONTENTS. 



Page.. 
Introductory Essay, 13 



CHAPTER I. 
Summary View, 25 

CHAPTER II. 

The Primitive Churches formed after the model of the 
Jewish Synagogue, 39 

CHAPTER III. 
Independence of the Primitive Churches, . . .47 

CHAPTER IV. 
Elections by the Churches, 53 

1. Scriptural argument, ....... 54 

2. Historical argument, 64 

Loss of the right of suffrage, ... . . . .70 

Remarks on election by the people, 80 

CHAPTER V. 

Discipline by the Churches, ...... 87 

Argument from Scripture, 88 



X 



CONTENTS. 



From the early fathers, .... 
From ecclesiastical writers, 

From analogy, 

Mode of admission, 

Usurpation of discipline by the priesthood, 
Remarks on discipline by the churches, 



Page. 
94 

106 

107 

112 

113 

117 



CHAPTER VI. 
Equality and Identity of Bishops and Presbyters, 

Scriptural Argument. 
Their titles used interchangeably, 
Their qualifications required to be the same, 
Their duties the same, 
Presbyterian ordination, 
James not bishop of Jerusalem, . 
Timothy not bishop of Ephesus, 
Titus not bishop of Crete, . 
The angels of the churches in the Apocalypse not bishops 



124 



126 
131 
133 
139 
146 
152 
156 
157 



Historical Argument. 

Presbyters and bishops designated by the same names in 

the early Fathers, 162 

Presbyterian ordination, in ancient history, . . . 176 
Validity of it conceded by the English Reformers, . . 191 
Primitive bishops merely parish ministers, . . . 198 

Parochial Episcopacy, ....... 201 

Bearings of it upon prelacy, . . . . . . 211 

Equality of bishops and presbyters conceded, down to the 

time of the Reformation, 215 

Remarks on the primitive and popular government of the 
churches, 



CONTENTS. XI 

CHAPTER VT1. 

Page. 

Rise of Episcopacy, . . . . . . • . 246 

Ascendency of the churches in the cities over those in the 

country, 247 

Reasons for this ascendency, . . ... . . 249 

Superiority of bishops in cities over those of the country, 254 

CHAPTER VIII. 

The Diocesan Government, .. 267 

Means of its development, ...... 267 

Its results, 274 

CHAPTER IX. 

The Metropolitan Government, 281 

Means of its establishment, ...... 282 

Results of the system upon the laity, . . . . 284 

Results upon the clergy, 290 

State of religion under the hierarchy, .... 302 

CHAPTER X. 

The Patriarchal and the Papal Government, . . . 309 

Patriarchal government, . . . . . . . 309 

Papal government, 310 

Remarks on ancient prelacy, 314 

CHAPTER XI. 

Prayers of the Primitive Church, 321 

The use of forms of prayer opposed to the spirit of the 

Christian dispensation, ....... 321 

Opposed to the example of Christ and the apostles, . . 323 

Unauthorized by the instructions of Christ and the apostles, 325 

The Lord's prayer not a form, . . ... . . 330 



Xll 



CONTENTS. 



Page. 
Forms of prayer opposed to the freedom of primitive worship, 331 

Unknown in the primitive church, . . . . . 334 

Remarks on liturgies, ....... 353 



CHAPTER XII. 

Psalmody of the Primitive Church, 
Argument from reason, 

" from analogy, 

" from Scripture, . 

" from history, 

Mode of singing, 
Changes in the psalmody of the church, 
Remarks on congregational singing, . 



363 
363 
364 
364 
366 
370 
375 
379 



CHAPTER XIII. 
Homilies in the Primitive Church, 
Discourses of Christ and the apostles, 
Scriptural exposition, .... 

Homilies in the Greek church, . 
Homilies in the Latin church, . 
Episcopacy an incumbrance to the preacher, 



391 
391 

397 
400 
405 

408 



CHAPTER XIV. 

The Benediction, ...... 

Origin and import of the rite, 

Mode of administering it, . 

Superstitious perversions of the benediction, 



412 
412 
418 
419 



Afpendix, 

Scriptural Index, . 
Index of Authorities, 
General Index, 



427 
443 
444 

448 



INTRODUCTION, 



BY 



Dr. AUGUSTUS NEANDER, 

PROFESSOR OF THEOLOGY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF BERLIN, CONSIS- 
TOR1AL COUNSELLOR, ETC. 



In compliance with the request of my worthy friend, 
the Rev. Mr. Coleman, I am happy to accompany his pro- 
posed work, on the Constitution and Worship of the apos- 
tolical and primitive church, with some preliminary remarks. 
I regard it as one of the remarkable signs of the times, that 
Christians, separated from each other by land and by sea, by 
language and government, are becoming more closely united 
in the consciousness that they are only different members of 
one universal church, grounded and built on the rock Christ 
Jesus. And it is with the hope of promoting this catholic 
union, that I gladly improve this opportunity to address my 
Christian brethren beyond the waters, on some important 
subjects of common interest to the church of Christ. 

This is not the proper place to express in detail, and to 
defend my own views upon the controverted topics which, 
as I have reason to expect from the respected author, will 
be the subject of an extended, thorough and impartial ex- 
amination in his proposed work. My own sentiments havfi 
2 



14 INTRODUCTION. 

already been expressed, in a work which, I am happy to 
learn, is offered to the English reader in a translation by my 
friend, the Rev. Mr. Ryland, of Northampton, in England. 1 
I have only time and space, in this place, briefly to express 
the results of former inquiries, which, with the reasons for 
them, have on other occasions already been given to the 
public. 

It is of the utmost importance, to keep ever in view the 
difference between the economy of the Old Testament and 
that of the New. The neglect of this has given rise to 
the grossest errors, and to divisions, by which those who 
ought to be united together in the bonds of Christian love, 
have been sundered from each other. In the Old Testa- 
ment, everything relating to the kingdom of God was esti- 
mated by outward forms, and promoted by specific external 
rites. In the New, everything is made to depend upon what 
is internal and spiritual. Other foundation, as the apostle 
Paul has said, can no man lay than that is laid. Upon this 
the Christian church at first was grounded, and upon this 
alone, in all time to come, must it be reared anew and 
compacted together. Faith in Jesus of Nazareth, the Sa- 
viour of the world, and union with him, a participation in 
that salvation which cometh through him, — this is that in- 
ward principle, that unchangeable foundation, on which the 
Christian church essentially rests. But whenever, instead 
of making the existence of the church to depend on this in- 

1 History of the Planting and Training of the Christian Church, by 
the Apostles, by Dr. A. Neander, Ordinary Professor of Theology, 
in the University of Berlin, Consistorial Counsellor; translated from 
the third edition, by J. E. Ryland. 



INTRODUCTION. 15 

ward principle alone, the necessity of some outward form is 
asserted as an indispensable means of grace, we readily per- 
ceive that the purity of its character is impaired. The spirit 
of the Old Testament is commingled with that of the New, 
Neither Christ nor the apostles, have given any unchangea- 
ble law on the subject. Where two or three are gathered 
together in my name, says Christ, there am I in the midst of 
them. This coming together in his name, he assures us r 
alone renders the assembly well pleasing in his sight, what- 
ever be the different forms of government under which his 
people meet. 

The apostle Paul says indeed, Eph. 4: II, that Christ 
gave to the church certain offices, through which he opera- 
ted with his Spirit, and its attendant gifts. But assuredly 
Paul did not mean to say that Christ, during his abode on 
earth, appointed these offices in the church, or authorized 
the form of government that was necessarily connected with 
them. All the offices here mentioned, with the single ex- 
ception of that of the apostles, were instituted by the apos- 
tles themselves, after our Lord's ascension. In making 
these appointments, they acted, as they did in everything 
else, only as the organs of Christ. Paul, therefore, very 
justly ascribes to Christ himself what was done by the apos- 
tles in this instance as his agents. But the apostles them- 
selves have given no law, requiring that any such form of 
government as is indicated in this passage should be per- 
petual. Under the guidance of the Spirit of God, they gave 
the church this particular organization, which, while it was 
best adapted to the circumstances and relations of the 
church at that time, was also best suited to the extension of 



16 INTRODUCTION. 

the churches in their peculiar condition, and for the devel- 
opment of the inward principles of their communion. But 
forms may change with every change of circumstances. 
Many of the offices mentioned in that passage, either were 
entirely unknown at a later period, or existed in relations 
one to another entirely new. 2 

Whenever at a later period, also, any form of church gor- 
ernment has arisen out of a series of events according to 
the direction of divine providence, and is organized and 
governed with regard to the Lord's will, he may be said, 
himself, to have established it, and to operate through it, by 
his Spirit ; without which nothing pertaining to the church 

2 One peculiar office, that of the prophets, in process of time ceas- 
ed in the church, while something analogous to the gift of prophecy 
still remained ; indeed it might be easily shown that the prophetic 
office continued at that early period, so long as it was necessary for 
the establishment of the Christian church, under its peculiar exigen- 
cies and relations. Pastors and teachers are mentioned in this pas- 
sage, in the same connection. Their office, which related to the 
government of particular churches, is distinguished from that of 
those who had been mentioned before, and whose immediate object 
was the extension of the Christian church in general. And yet a 
distinction is also made between these pastors and teachers, inasmuch 
as the qualifications for the outward government of the church, 
xvfiiQVTjGig, were different from those which were requisite for the 
guidance of the church by the preaching of the word, ScSaoy.ah'a. 
The first belonged especially to the presbyters or bishops who stood 
at the head of the organization for the outward government of the 
church. Certain it is, at least, that they did not all possess the gift 
of teaching as Siddoxaloi.; teachers. On the other hand, there may 
have been persons endowed with the gift of teaching, and qualified 
thus to be teachers, who still belonged not to the class of presbyters. 
The relations of these offices to one another seem not to have been 
the same in all stages of the development of the apostolical churches. 



INTRODUCTION. 17 

can prosper. The great principles which are given by the 
apostle, in the passage before us, for the guidance of the 
church, — these, and these only, remain unchangeably the 
same ; because they are immediately connected with the 
nature of the Christian church, as a spiritual community. 
All else is mutable. The form of the church remained not 
the same, even through the whole course of the apostolic 
age, from the first descent of the Spirit, on the day of Pen- 
tecost, to the death of John the apostle. Particular forms 
of church government may be more or less suited to the 
nature of the Christian church ; and we may add, no one 
is absolutely perfect, neither are all alike good under all 
circumstances. Would then that all, in their strivings after 
forms of church government, would abide fast by those 
which they believe to be best adapted to promote their own 
spiritual edification, and which they may have found, by ex- 
perience, to be best suited to the wants of their own Chris- 
tian community. Only let them not seek to impose upon all 
Christians any one form as indispensably necessary. Only 
let them remember, that the upbuilding of the church of 
Christ may be carried on under other forms also ; and that 
the same Spirit, on which the existence of the church de- 
pends, can as truly operate in other churches as in their own. 
Would that Congregationalists, Presbyterians and Episco- 
palians, Calvinists and Lutherans, would abide by that only 
unchangeable foundation which Christ has laid. Would 
that on such a foundation, which no man can lay, they would 
meet as brethren in Christ, acknowledging each other as 
members of one catholic church, and organs of the same 
2* 



18 INTRODUCTION. 

Spirit, co-operating together for the promotion of the great 
ends indicated by the apostle Paul in Eph. 4 : 13 — 16. 

It must, indeed, be of great importance to examine im- 
partially the relations of the apostolical church ; for, at this 
time, the Spirit of Christ, through the apostles, wrought in 
its purest influence ; by which means the mingling of foreign 
elements was prevented in the development of this system 
of ecclesiastical polity. In this respect we must all admit 
that the apostolical church commends itself to us as a 
model of church government. But, in the first place, let 
us remember, agreeably to what has already been said, that 
not all the forms of church government which were adapted 
to the exigencies of the church at this early period, can be 
received as patterns for the church at other times ; neither 
can the imitation be pressed too far. Let us remember, that 
it is only that same Spirit which is imparted to us through 
the intervention of the apostles, which, at all times, and 
under all possible relations, will direct to the most appro- 
priate and most efficient form of government, if, in humility 
and sincerity, we surrender ourselves up to its teaching and 
guidance. And secondly, let us remember, that, after true 
and faithful inquiry on these subjects, men may honestly dif- 
fer in their views on those minor points, without interrupting 
the higher communion of faith and love. 

In the apostolical church there was one office which bears 
no resemblance to any other, and to which none can be 
made to conform. This is the office of the apostles. They 
stand as the medium of communication between Christ and 
the whole Christian church, to transmit his word and his 
Spirit through all ages. In this respect the church must 



INTRODUCTION. 19 

ever continue to acknowledge her dependence upon them, 
and to own their rightful authority. Their authority and 
power can be delegated to none other. But the service 
which the apostles themselves sought to confer, was to trans- 
mit to men the word and the Spirit of the Lord, and, by 
this means, to establish independent Christian communities. 
These communities, when once established, they refused to 
hold in a state of slavish dependence upon themselves. Their 
object was, in the Spirit of the Lord, to make the churches free, 
and independent of their guidance. To the churches their 
language was, " Ye beloved, ye are made free, be ye the ser- 
vants of no man." The churches were taught to govern 
themselves. All the members were made to co-operate to- 
gether as organs of one Spirit, in connection with which 
spiritual gifts were imparted to each as he might need. Thus 
they, whose prerogative it was to rule among the brethren, 
demeaned themselves as the servants of Christ and his church. 
They acted in the name of Christ and his church, as the 
organs of that Spirit with which all were inspired, and from 
which they derived the consciousness of their mutual Chris- 
tian fellowship. 

The brethren chose their own officers from among them- 
selves. Or if, in the first organization of the churches, 
their officers were appointed by the apostles, it was with 
the approbation of the members of the same. The general 
concerns of the church were managed by the apostles in 
connection with their brethren in the church, to whom they 
also addressed their epistles. 

The earliest constitution of the church was modelled, for 
the most part, after that religious community with which it 



20 INTRODUCTION. 

stood in closest connection, and to which it was most as- 
similated — the Jewish synagogue. This, however, was so 
modified as to conform to the nature of the Christian com- 
munity, and to the new and peculiar spirit with which it 
was animated. Like the synagogue, the church was gov- 
erned by an associated body of men appointed for this pur- 
pose. 

The name of presbyters, which was appropriated to this 
body, was derived from the Jewish synagogue. But in the 
Gentile churches, formed by the apostle Paul, they took the 
name of imaxoTioi, bishops, a term more significant of their 
office in the language generally spoken by the members of 
these churches. The name of presbyters denoted the digni- 
ty of their office. That of bishops, on the other hand, was 
expressive rather of the nature of their office, imaxoneTv 
rrjv ixxlqoiav, to take the oversight of the church. Most 
certainly no other distinction originally existed between them. 
But, in process of time, some one, in the ordinary course of 
events, would gradually obtain the pre-eminence over his 
colleagues, and by reason of that peculiar oversight which 
he exercised over the whole community, might come to be 
designated by the name Imaxonog, bishop, which was origi- 
nally applied to them all indiscriminately. The constant 
tumults, from within and from without, which agitated the 
church in the times of the apostles, may have given to such 
a one opportunity to exercise his influence the more efficient- 
ly ; so that, at such a time, the controlling influence of one 
in this capacity may have been very salutary to the church. 
This change in the relation of the presbyters to each other 
was not the same in all the churches, but varied according 



INTRODUCTION. 21 

to their different circumstances. It may have been as early 
as the latter part of the life of John, when he was sole sur- 
vivor of the other apostles, that one, as president of this body 
of presbyters, was distinguished by the name of miaxonog, 
bishop. There is, however, no evidence that the apostle 
himself introduced this change ; much less, that he autho- 
rized it as a perpetual ordinance for the future. Such an 
ordinance is in direct opposition to the spirit of that apostle. 3 
This change in the mode of administering the govern- 
ment of the church, resulting from peculiar circumstances, 
may have been introduced as a salutary expedient, without 
implying any departure from the purity of the Christian 
spirit. When, however, the doctrine is, as it gradually gain- 
ed currency in the third century, — that the bishops are, by 
divine right, the head of the church, and invested with the 
government of the same ; that they are the successors of 
the apostles, and by this succession inherit apostolical au- 

3 In the angels of the churches in the seven epistles of the Apoca- 
lypse, I cannot recognize the Glials I"pVw of the Jewish synagogue 
transferred to the Christian church. The application appears to me 
to be altogether arbitrary. Nor again can I discover in the angel of 
the church, the bishop, addressed as the representative of this body 
of believers. How much must we assume as already proved, which 
yet is entirely without evidence, in assigning to this early period the 
rise of such a monarchical system of government, that the bishop alone 
can be put in the place of the whole church ? In this phraseology I 
recognize rather a symbolical application of the idea of guardian an- 
gels, similar to that of the Ferver of the Parsees, as a symbolical rep- 
resentation and image of the whole church. Such a figurative rep- 
resentation corresponds well with the poetical and symbolical char- 
acter of the book throughout. It is also expressly said that the ad- 
dress is to the whole body of the churches. 



22 INTRODUCTION. 

thority; that they are the medium through which, in con- 
sequence of that ordination which they have received, mere- 
ly in an outward manner, the Holy Ghost, in all time to come, 
must be transmitted to the church — when this becomes the 
doctrine of the church, we certainly must perceive, in these 
assumptions, a strong corruption of the purity of the Chris- 
tian system. It is a carnal perversion of the true idea of 
the Christian church. It is falling back into the spirit of 
the Jewish religion. Instead of the Christian idea of a 
church, based on inward principles of communion, and ex- 
tending itself by means of these, it presents us with the image 
of one, like that under the Old Testament, resting in out- 
ward ordinances, and, by external rites, seeking to promote 
the propagation of the kingdom of God. This entire per- 
version of the original view of the Christian church was itself 
the origin of the whole system of the Roman Catholic reli- 
gion, — the germ from which sprung the popery of the dark 
ages. 

We hold, indeed, no controversy with that class of Epis- 
copalians who adhere to the Episcopal system above men- 
tioned as well adapted, in their opinion, to the exigencies of 
their church. We would live in harmony with them, not- 
withstanding their mistaken views of the true form of the 
church, provided they denounce not other systems of church 
government. But the doctrine of the absolute necessity of 
the Episcopal as the only valid form of government, and of 
the Episcopal succession of bishops above mentioned, in 
order to a participation in the gifts of the Spirit, all this we 
must regard as something foreign to the true idea of the 
Christian church. It is in direct conflict with the spirit of 



INTRODUCTION. 23 

protestantism ; and is the origin, not of the true Catholicism 
of the apostle, but of that of the Romish church. When, 
therefore, Episcopalians disown, as essentially deficient in 
their ecclesiastical organization, other protestant churches 
which evidently have the spirit of Christ, it only remains for 
us to protest, in the strongest terms, against their setting up 
such a standard of perfection for the Christian church. Far 
be it from us, who began with Luther in the spirit, that we 
should now desire to be made perfect by the flesh. Gal. 3 : 3. 

Dr. A. Neander. 
Berlin, April 28th, 1843. 



THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH, 



CHAPTER I, 

SUMMARY VIEW. 

The Christian church derived its earliest form from a 
small society of believers, who were united together by no 
law but that of the love which they felt to one another, and 
to their common Lord. 1 After his ascension, they continued 
to meet, in singleness of heart, for the mutual interchange 
of sympathy and love, and for the worship of their Lord and 
Master. The government which, in process of time, the 
fraternity adopted for themselves, was free and voluntary. 
Each individual church possessed the rights and powers in- 
herent in an independent popular assembly ; or, to adopt the 
language of another, " The right to enact their laws, and the 
entire government of the church, was vested in each individ- 
ual association of which the church was composed, and was 
exercised by the members of the same, in connection with 
their overseers and teachers, and, when the apostles were 
present, in common also with them." 2 This genera] exposi- 
tion of the government of the primitive church, it will be our 

1 Neander's Apost. Kirch. Vol. I. c. 1. Rothe, Anfknge der Christ. 
Kirch. I. S. 141—2. 

2 Cited in Allgemeine Kirch. Zeitung, 1833. No. 103. 

3 



26 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

business to illustrate and defend in the following pages. 
The course of our inquiries will lead us to examine the pop- 
ular government of the apostolical and primitive church, to 
trace the gradual extinction of this form of government, and 
the rise of the Episcopal system ; and also to consider the 
simplicity of primitive worship in its several parts. 

The arguments for the popular government of the apostol- 
ical and primitive church may be arranged under the follow- 
ing heads. 

1. It harmonizes with the primitive simplicity of all forms 
of government. 

The multiplication of offices, the adjustment of the gra- 
dations of rank and power, and a complicated system of 
rites and forms, are the work of time. At first, the rules of 
government, however administered, are few and simple. 
The early Christians, especially, associating together in the 
confidence of mutual love, and uniting in sincerity of heart 
for the worship of God, may fairly be presumed to have 
had only a few conventional rules for the regulation of 
their fraternity. 

2. It is, perhaps, the only organization which the church 
could safely have formed, at that time, under the Roman 
government. 

Without any established religion, the Romans tolerated 
indeed, different religious sects, and might have extended 
the same indulgence to the primitive Christians. But they 
looked with suspicion upon every organization of party or 
sect, as treason against the state, and punished with cruel 
jealousy every indication of a confederacy within the empire. 
The charge of treasonable intentions prevailed with the 
Roman governor against our Lord. And under Trajan, A. 
D. 103, a bloody persecution was commenced against the 
church, on the suspicion that it might be a secret society, 
formed for seditious purposes. Under these circumstances, 



SUMMARY VIEW. 27 

it is difficult to conceive how a diocesan consolidation of the 
churches established by the apostles, could have been effected 
without bringing down upon them the vengeance of the Ro- 
man government, to crush, at the outset, a coalition to it 
so obnoxious. Their apparently harmless and informal as- 
semblies, and the total absence of all connection, one with 
another, was, according to Planck and many others, the 
means of saving the early churches so long and so extensively 
from the exterminating sword of Roman jealousy. 3 

Crevit occulto, velut arbor, aevo. 

3. Such an organization must have been formed, it would 
seem, in order to unite the discordant parties in the primitive 
churches. 

Here was the Jew, the Greek, the Roman, and Barbari- 
ans of every form of superstition ; converts, indeed, to faith 
in Christ, but with all their partialities and prejudices still. 
What but a voluntary principle, guaranteeing to all the free- 
dom of a popular assembly, could unite these parties in one 
fraternity 1 Our Lord himself employed no artificial bands 
to bind his followers together into a permanent body ; and 
they were alienated from him upon the slightest offence. 
The apostles had still less to bind their adherents firmly to 
themselves. It required all their wisdom and address to re- 
concile the discordant prejudices of their converts, and unite 
them in harmonious fellowship one with another. This dif- 
ficulty met the apostles at the outset of their ministry, in the 
murmuring of the Greeks against the Jews, that their wid- 
ows were neglected in the daily ministration. This mutual 
jealousy was a continual trial besetting them on every side, 
from the churches which they had formed. Under such 
circumstances, they assumed not the responsibility of settling 
these controversies by apostolical or Episcopal authority; but 
by their counsel and persuasion, they sought to obviate the 

3 Geselkchafts-Verfass, I. S. 40—50. 



28 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

prejudices of their brethren. Everything relating to the in- 
terests of each church they left to be publicly discussed, and 
decided by mutual consent. In this manner they quieted 
these complaints of the Greeks respecting the distribution of 
alms. Acts 6 : 1 — 8. And such, no doubt, became their 
settled policy in their care of the churches. Even the 
apostles were not exempt from these infirmities and misun- 
derstandings, and might have found no small difficulty in 
arranging among themselves a more artificial and complica- 
ted system of church government. 4 

4. The same is inferred from the existence of popular 
rights and privileges in the early periods of the Christian 
church. 

It is known to every one at all acquainted with the early 
history of the church, that from the second century down to 
the final triumph of papacy, there was a strong and increas- 
ing tendency to exalt and extend the authority of the clergy, 
and to curtail and depress that of the people. The fact is 
undeniable. But how shall it be explained ? If a prelati- 
cal form of organization was divinely appointed by Christ 
and his apostles, vesting in the clergy alone the right of gov- 
ernment, and if the tide of clerical encroachment ran so 
steadily and strongly from the first, then it is inconceiv- 
able, how, under these circumstances, the doctrine of pop- 
ular rights should ever have obtained such a footing in the 
church, as to maintain itself for centuries against the influ- 
ences of a jealous and oppressive hierarchy. Had the doc- 
trine of the popular rights been totally lost in the second 
and third centuries, this would by no means warrant the in- 
ference that such rights were unknown in the days of the 

4 Scbroeter unci Klein, Fiir Christenthum Oppositionsschrift, I. S. 
567. Siegel, Handbuch, II. 455 — 6. Arnold, Wabre-Abbildung der 
Ersten Christen, B. II. c. 5, seq. Schoene, Geschichtsforschungen 
d. Kirch. Gebrauch. I. S. 234—5. 



SUMMARY VIEW. 29 

apostles. They might have all been swept away by the ir- 
resistible tide of clerical influence and authority. But they 
were not lost. They were recognized even in the fourth 
and fifth centuries, and long after the hierarchy was estab- 
lished in connection with the state, and its authority enforced 
by imperial power. Were not the rights of the people es- 
tablished by Christ and the apostles 1 If not, how could 
they have come in and maintained their ground against the 
current that continually ran with such strength in the oppo- 
site direction X 

5. A popular form of church government harmonizes 
with the spirit, the instructions, and the example of Christ. 

(a) With his spirit. He was of a meek and lowly spirit, 
unostentatious and unassuming. He shrank from the de- 
monstrations of power, and refused the titles and honors 
that, at times, were pressed upon his acceptance. With 
such a spirit, that religious system must be congenial, which, 
without any parade of titles and of rank, has few offices, 
and little to excite the pride or tempt the ambition of man. 

(6) With his instructions. Ye know that the princes of 
the Gentiles exercise dominion over them, and they that are 
great exercise authority upon them, but it shall not be so 
among you ; but whosoever will be great among you, let him 
be your minister ; and whosoever will be chief among you, 
let him be your servant ; even as the Son of man came, not 
to be ministered unto, but to minister, and to give his life a 
ransom for many. Matt. 20: 25—28. Comp. Mark 10: 
42—45. 

(c) With his example. This was in perfect coincidence 
with his instructions, and a striking illustration of his spirit. 
His life was a pattern of humility, of untiring, unostentatious 
benevolence. He condescended to the condition of all ; 
and, as one of the latest and most expressive acts of his life, 
washed his disciples' feet, giving them an example for their 
3* 



30 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

imitation, as the servants of all men. Has such a spirit its 
just expression in a hierarchy, which has often dishonored 
the religion of Christ by the display of princely pomp, and 
the assumption of regal and imperial power? 5 

6. It equally accords with the spirit, the instructions, and 
the example of the apostles. 

(a) With their spirit. They had renounced their hopes 
of aggrandizement in the kingdom of Christ, and had im- 

. bibed much of his spirit. The world took knowledge of 
them that they had been with Jesus, and had learned of him, 
who was meek and lowly of heart. They accounted them- 
selves the least of all saints, and the servants of all. This 
spirit, it would seem, must be foreign from the distinctions 
of rank and of office, as well as from the authority and 
power which are inherent in every form of the Episcopal 
system. 

(b) With their instructions. These were in coincidence 
with those of their Master. The servant of the Lord must 
not strive, but be gentle unto all men ; apt to teach ; patient 
(under injuries) ; in meekness instructing those that oppose 
themselves. 2 Tim. 2: 24 — 25. Who then is Paul, and 
who is Apollos, but ministers by whom ye believed, even as 
the Lord gave to every man? 1 Cor. 3: 5. They disowned 
personal authority over the church : and instructed the elders 
not to lord it over God's heritage, but to be examples to the 
flock. 1 Pet. 5: 3. If, in the discharge of his ministry, one 
has occasion to reprove sin in an elder, this he is charged, 
before God and the elect angels, to do with all circumspec- 
tion, without prejudice or partiality. 1 Tim. 5: 21. 

(c) With their example. This is the best comment upon 
their instructions, and the clearest indication of that organ- 

5 The French infidels have an expression relating to our Saviour, 
which, though impious and profane, clearly indicates the nature of 
his instructions and example, — " Jesus Christ, the great Democrat." 



SUMMARY VIEW. 31 

ization which the church received at their hands. They ex- 
ercised, indeed, a controlling influence over the several 
churches which they established, as an American missionary 
does in organizing his Christian converts into a church, 
while he constitutes them a popular assembly under a Con- 
gregational or Presbyterian form. In like manner, it is ob- 
servable, that the apostles studiously declined the exercise of 
prelatical or Episcopal authority: 6 But the control which 
they at first exercised in the management of the affairs of the 
church was no part of their office. It was only a temporary 
expedient, resulting from the necessity of the case. Accord- 
ingly, they carefully disclaimed the official exercise of all 
clerical authority ; and, as soon as the circumstances of the 
churches would admit, they submitted to each the administra- 
tion of its own government. In this manner, they gave to 
the churches the character of voluntary, deliberative assem- 
blies, invested with the rights and privileges of religious 
liberty. In support of this position we have to offer the fol- 
lowing considerations : 

(a) They addressed the members of the church as breth- 
ren and sisters, and fellow-laborers. I would not have you 
ignorant, brethren, that oftentimes, I purposed to come unto 
you. Rom. 1: 13. And I, brethren, when I came unto you, 
came not in excellency of speech. 1 Cor. 2: 1. I commend 
unto you Phebe, our sister. Rom. 16: 1. The same famil- 
iar, affectionate style of address runs through all the epistles, 
showing in what consideration the apostles held all the mem- 
bers of the church. " The apostles severally were very far 
from placing themselves in a relation that bore any analogy 
to a mediating priesthood. In this respect they always 

6 Planck, Gesellschafts-Verfass., 1. S. 39. Spittler, Can. Recht, 
c. 1. § 3. Pertsch, Can. Recht, c. 1. § 5 — 8. Siegel, Kirchliche 
Verfassungsformen, in Handbuch, II. S. 455. Pertsch, Kirch. 
Hist. I. S. 156—170, 362—370. , 



32 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

placed themselves on a footing of equality. If Paul assured 
them of his intercessory prayers for them, he in return re- 
quested their prayers for himself." 7 

(fi) The apostles remonstrate with the members of the 
church as with brethren, instead of rebuking them authorita- 
tively. Now I beseech you, brethren, by the name of our 
Lord Jesus Christ, that ye all speak the same thing, and that 
there be no divisions among you. 1 Cor. 1: 10. Furthermore, 
then, we beseech you, brethren, and exhort you. 1 Thess. 4: 
1. My brethren, have not the faith of our Lord Jesus 
Christ, the Lord of glory, with respect of persons. James 2: 
1. They spoke not by commandment, but in the language 
of mutual counsellors. 1 Cor. 11: 13 — 16. 8 

(y) They treated with the church as an independent body, 
competent to judge and act for itself. They appealed 
to the judgment of their brethren personally. 1 Cor. 11: 13 
— 16. 1 Thess. 5: 21. They reported their own doings to 
the church, as if amenable to that body, Acts 11: 1 — 18. 14: 
26, 27, and exhorted the brethren to hold their teachers un- 
der their watch and discipline. Rom. 16: 17. 

(8) They exhorted the churches to deeds of charity and 
benevolence; but submitted to each the disposal of his goods 
and his charities. Acts 5: 4. 11: 29, 30, etc. 1 Cor. 16: 1, 
seq. 2 Cor. 9: 1 seq. 

(e) They addressed their epistles, not to the pastors of the 
churches, but to the churches, or to the churches and pastors 
collectively, giving precedence, in some instances, to the 
church. Phil. 1: 1. Even the epistles which treat of contro- 
verted ecclesiastical matters, are addressed, not to the bish- 
ops and presbyters, but to the whole body of believers, indi- 
cating that the decision belonged to them. Had it been oth- 

7 Neander, Apostol. Kirch., I. p. 161, 3d edit. ; and in the sequel 
much more to the same effect. 

8 Comp. Socrates, Hist. Eccl. Lib. 5. c. 22. 



SUMMARY VIEW. 33 

erwise, would not such instructions and advice have been 
given to the ministers of the churches? 9 

(t) They recognize the right of the churches to send out 
their own religious teachers and messengers, as they might 
have occasion. Acts 11: 19—24; 15: 32, 33. 2 Cor. 8: 
23. Phil. 2: 25. 1 Cor. 16: 3, 4. These deputations, and 
the power of sending them, indicate the independent authori- 
ty of the churches. 

(/;) They united with the church in mutual consultation 
upon doubtful questions. The brethren took part in the 
dissension with Peter, for having preached unto the Gentiles. 
Acts 11: 1 — 18. The apostles united with them in the dis- 
cussion of the question respecting circumcision, which was 
submitted to them by the delegation from Antioch, and the 
result was published in the name of the apostles and the breth- 
ren, jointly. Acts 15: 1 seq. 

(x>) They submitted to the church the settlement of their 
own difficulties. The appointment of the seven deacons, 
to obviate the murmurs of the Greeks, w T as made at the sug- 
gestion of the apostles, but the election was wholly the act 
of the church. Acts 6: 1 — 6. The apostles refused any au- 
thoritative arbitration in the case; and required the churches 
to choose arbitrators among themselves to settle their own 
litigations. 1 Cor. 6: 1. 

(t) They entrusted the church, also, with the important 
right of electing its own officers. As in the case of the 
seven deacons, which we have just stated ; the apostles 
refused even the responsibility of supplying, in their own 
number, the place of the traitor Judas, but submitted the 
choice to the assembly of the disciples. Acts 1: J5, seq. In 
this connection should the appointment of elders, Acts 14: 
23, also be mentioned, as may hereafter appear. 

(x) The apostles submitted to the church the discipline of 

9 Comp. Ep. Clem, and Euseb., h. e. Lib. 4. c. 15. Lib. 5. c. 1, 
c. 24. 



34 



THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 



its members; as in the case of the incestuous person, who 
was excommunicated and afterwards restored to the church 
by that body. " The relations of presbyters to the church 
was not that of rulers with monarchical powers, but of the 
officers of an ecclesiastical republic. In all things they were 
to act in connection with the church, and to perform their 
duties as the servants, and not the lords of the church. The 
apostles recognized the same relation. They addressed 
their epistles, not to the officers of the church, but to the 
whole body, when treating not merely of doctrinal points, but 
of moral duties and of church discipline. The apostle Paul, 
when speaking of the excommunication of the incestuous 
person at Corinth, regards himself as united in spirit with 
the whole church, 1 Cor. 5: 4 ; thus indicating the principle, 
that their co-operation was required in all such cases of gen- 
eral interest." 10 

The churches, therefore, which were planted by the apos- 
tles, were under their sanction organized as independent pop- 
ular assemblies, with power to elect officers, adopt rules, ad- 
minister discipline, and to do all those acts which belong to 
such deliberative bodies. 

7. The popular government of the primitive church is ap- 
parent from its analogy to the Jewish synagogue. 

This and each of the following articles, under this head, 
will be the subjects of consideration in another place. They 
are assumed as so many separate heads of argumentation, 
so far as they may appear to be founded in truth. Comp. 
Chap. II. 

8. The primitive churches were, severally, independent bo- 
dies, in Christian fellowship, but having no confederate rela- 
tions one toward another. 

" The power of enacting laws," says Mosheim, " of ap- 

10 Neander, Allgem. Gesch., I, S. 324, 2d ed. 



SUMMARY VIEW. 35 

pointing teachers and ministers, and of determining con- 
troversies, was lodged in the people at large; nor did the 
apostles, though invested with divine authority, either re- 
solve or sanction anything whatever, without the know- 
ledge and concurrence of the general body of Christians, of 
which the church was composed." 11 Comp. Chap. III. 

9. These churches severally enjoyed the inherent right of 
every independent body — that of choosing their own officers. 
This right, which, as we have seen, belonged to the apostol- 
ical churches, was retained in the churches during the 
ages immediately following. Comp. Chap. IV. 

/ 

10. As in the apostolical, so in the other primitive church- 
es, the right of discipline was vested, not in the clergy, but 
in each church collectively. 12 

Even the officers of the church were subject to the au- 
thority of the same. Clement recognizes this authority in 
his epistles to the Corinthians. 13 Comp. Chap. V. 

11. The appropriate officers of the church were deacons 
and pastors. These pastors were denominated indiscrimi- 
nately bishops, overseers, and elders, presbyters, and were at 
first identical. Comp. Chap. VI. 

11 De Rebus Christ., etc. § 1, 37. To the same effect, also, is the 
authority of Neander, Apost. Kirch, pp, 1, 161, 201, 214, 3d ed. 

12 Primo omnibus ecclesiae membris jus eligendi pastores et dia- 
conos erat. Communicatio erat quaedam inter varies coetus chris- 
tianos vel ecclesias; literae quas altera acceperat alteri legendae mit- 
tebantur. Fecunias ad pauperes sublevandos ecclesia ecclesiae dona- 
bat. De rebus fidei et disciplinae jam apostoli deiiberaverunt. Quae- 
quae ecclesia exercebat jus excommunicandi eos qui doctrinae et vi- 
tae christianae renunciaverant, eosque recipiendi quorum poenitentia 
et mentis mutatio constabat. Sic prima christianorum ecclesia liber- 
tate, concordia, sanctitate floruit. Sack Comment, ad Theol. Inst, 
p. 141. 

13 Epist. § 54, comp. 44. Also Pertsch, Kirch. Hist. I. 362. 



36 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

The government of the church was the peculiar office of 
the bishops or presbyters. It was their business to watch 
over the general order, — to maintain the purity of the Chris- 
tian doctrine and of Christian practice, — to guard against 
abuses, — to admonish the faulty, — and to guide the public 
deliberations ; as appears from the passages in the New 
Testament where their functions are described. But their 
government by no means excluded the participation of the 
whole church in the management of their common concerns, 
as may be inferred from what we have already remarked re- 
specting the nature of Christian communion, and as is also 
evident from many individual examples in the apostolical 
churches. The whole church at Jerusalem took part in the 
deliberations respecting the relation of the Jewish and Gen- 
tile Christians to each other, and the epistle drawn up after 
these deliberations was likewise in the name of the whole 
church. The epistles of the apostle Paul, as has already 
been remarked, which treat of various controverted ecclesi- 
astical matters, are addressed to the whole churches ; imply- 
ing that the decision belonged to the whole body. Had it 
been otherwise, would he not have addressed his instructions 
and advice, principally at least, to the overseers of the church ? 
When a licentious person belonging to the church at Corinth 
is to be excommunicated, the apostle treats it as a measure 
that ought to proceed from the whole society; and places 
himself, therefore, in spirit among them, to unite with them 
in passing judgment; 1 Cor. 5: 3 — 5. Also when discours- 
ing of the settlement of litigations, the apostle does not af- 
firm that it properly belonged to the overseers of the church; 
although, if this had been the prevalent custom, he would no 
doubt have referred to it; what he says, seems rather to im- 
ply that it was usual, in particular instances, to select arbitra- 
tors from among the members of the church, 1 Cor. G: 5. 14 
Greiling, after going through with an examination of the 

14 Neander, Apost. Kirch. I. pp. 1, 201. Comp. also, p. 214. 



SUMMARY VIEW. 37 

government of the apostolical churches, gives the following 
summary : " In the age of the apostles, there was no primate 
of the churches, but the entire equality of brethren prevailed. 
The apostles themselves exercised no kind of authority or 
power over the churches; but styled themselves their helpers 
and servants. The settlement of controverted points, the 
adoption of new rites, the discipline of the church, the elec- 
tion of presbyters, and even the choice of an apostle, were 
submitted to the church. The principle on which the apos- 
tles proceeded was, that the church, that is, the elders and 
the members of the church unitedly, were the depositaries of 
all their social rights ; that no others could exercise this right 
but those to whom the church might entrust it, and who 
were accordingly amenable to the church. Even the apos- 
tles, though next to Christ himself, invested with the highest 
authority, assumed no superiority over the presbyters, but 
treated them as brethren, and styled themselves fellow-pres- 
byters, — thus recognizing them as associates in office." 15 

Finally, the worship of the primitive churches was re- 
markable for its freedom and simplicity. Their religious 
rites were few and simple ; and restrained by no complicated 
ritual, or prescribed ceremonials. This point is considered, 
at length, in a subsequent part of the work. 

The government throughout was wholly popular. Every 
church adopted its own regulations, and enacted its own 
laws. These laws were administered by officers elected by 
the church. No church was dependent upon another. They 
were represented in synod by their own delegates. Their 
discipline was administered, not by the clergy, but by the 
people or the church collectively. And even after ordination 
became the exclusive right of the bishop, no one was permit- 
ted to preach to any congregation, who was not sufficiently 
approved, and duly accepted by the congregation ; and all 

15 Apostol. Christengemeine. Halberstadt, 1819. 
4 



38 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

their religious worship was conducted on the same princi- 
ples of freedom and equality. 

Such was the organization of the Christian church in its 
primitive simplicity and purity. The national peculiarities 
of the Jewish and gentile converts, in some degree, modi- 
fied individual churches, but the form of government was 
substantially the same in all. We claim not for it authority 
absolutely imperative and divine, to the exclusion of every 
other system; but it has, we must believe, enough of precept, 
of precedent, and of principle, to give it a sanction truly 
apostolic. Its advantages and practical results justly claim 
an attentive consideration. 



CHAPTER II. 

THE PRIMITIVE CHURCHES FORMED AFTER THE 
MODEL OF THE JEWISH SYNAGOGUE. 

The apostles and the first disciples were Jews, who, after 
their conversion, retained the prejudices and partialities of 
their nation. They observed still all the rites of their re- 
ligion ; and, firmly believing that salvation by Christ belong- 
ed only to the circumcision, they refused the ministry of re- 
conciliation to the Gentiles. All their national peculiarities 
led them to conform the Christian to the Jewish church. 

With the temple-service and the Mosaic ritual, however ^ 
Christianity had no affinity. The sacrificial offerings of 
the temple, and the Levitical priesthood, it abolished. But 
in the synagogue-worship, the followers of Christ found a 
more congenial institution. It invited them to the reading 
of the Scriptures, and to prayer. It gave them liberty of 
speech in exhortation, and in worshipping and praising God. 
The rules and government of the synagogue, while they 
offered little, comparatively, to excite the pride of office and 
of power, commended themselves the more to the humble 
believer in Christ. The synagogue was endeared to the de- 
vout Jew by sacred associations and tender recollections. 
It was near at hand, and not, like the temple, afar off. He 
went but seldom up to Jerusalem ; and only on great oc- 
casions joined in the rites of the temple-service. But in the 
synagogue he paid his constant devotions to the God of his 
fathers. It met his eye in every place. It was constantly 



40 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

^ before him, and from infancy to hoary age, he was accus- 
tomed to repair to that hallowed place of worship, to listen 
to the reading of his sacred books, to pray and sing praises 
unto the God of Israel. In accordance with pious usage, 
therefore, the apostles continued to frequent the synagogues 
of the Jews. Wherever they went, they resorted to these 
places of worship, and strove to convert their brethren to 
faith in Christ, not as a new religion, but as a modification 
of their own. 

In their own religious assemblies they also conformed, as 
far as was consistent with the spirit of the Christian religion, 
to the same rites, and gradually settled upon a church-organ- 
ization which harmonized, in a remarkable manner, with 
that of the Jewish synagogue. They even retained the same 
name, as the appellation of their Christian assemblies. " If 
there come into your assembly, ovvayaytjv, if there come into 
your synagogue a man with a gold ring, etc." James 2: 2. 
Compare also i7ZbGvvaycoyrjv. Heb. 10: 25. Their modes of 
worship were, substantially, the same as those of the syna- 
gogue. The titles of their officers they also borrowed from 
the same source. The titles, Bishop, Pastor, Presbyter, etc., 
were all familiar to them, as synonymous terms, denoting the 
same class of officers in the synagogue. Their duties and 
prerogatives remained, in substance, the same in the Chris- 
tian church as in that of the Jews. 

So great was this similarity between the primitive Chris- 
tian churches and the Jewish synagogues, that by the Pagan 
nations they were mistaken for the same institutions. Pa- 
gan historians uniformly treated the primitive Christians as 
Jews. 1 As such, they suffered under the persecutions of 
their idolatrous rulers. These, and many other particulars 
that might be mentioned, are sufficient to show, that the 
ecclesiastical polity of the Jewish synagogue was very closely 

1 Vitringa, De Synagog. Vet. Prolegoin. pp. 3, 4. 



MODEL OF THE PRIMITIVE CHURCHES. 41 

copied by the apostles and primitive Christians in the organ- 
ization of their assemblies. 

In support of the foregoing statements, authorities to any 
extent, and of the highest character, might easily be ad- 
duced. Let the following, however, suffice, from Neander, 
who is generally acknowledged to be more profoundly skilled 
in the history of the Christian church than any other man 
now living. " The disciples had not yet attained a clear un- 
derstanding of that call, which Christ had already given 
them by so many intimations, to form a church entirely sep- 
arated from the existing Jewish economy ; to that economy 
they adhered as much as possible ; all the forms of the na- 
tional theocracy were sacred in their esteem ; it seemed the 
natural element of their religious consciousness, though a 
higher principle of life had been imparted, by which that 
consciousness was to be progressively inspired and transform- 
ed. They remained outwardly Jews, although, in propor- 
tion as their faith in Jesus as the Redeemer became clearer 
and stronger, they would inwardly cease to be Jews, and all 
external rites would assume a different relation to their in- 
ternal life. It was their belief, that the existing religious 
forms would continue till the second coming of Christ, when 
a new and higher order of things would be established, and 
this great change they expected would shortly take place. 
Hence the establishment of a distinct mode of worship was 
far from entering their thoughts. Although new ideas re- 
specting the essence of true worship arose in their minds 
from the light of faith in the Redeemer, they felt as great an 
interest in the temple worship as any devout Jews. They 
believed, however, that a sifting would take place among the 
members of the theocracy, and that the better part would, 
by the acknowledgment of Jesus as the Messiah, be incor- 
porated with the Christian community. As the believers, in 
opposition to the mass of the Jewish nation who remained 

hardened in their unbelief, now formed a community inter- 

4# 



42 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

nally bound together by the one faith in Jesus as the Mes- 
siah, and by the consciousness of the higher life received 
from him, it was necessary that this internal union should as- 
sume a certain external form. And a model for such a 
smaller community within the great national theocracy al- 
ready existed among the Jews, along with the temple wor- 
ship, namely, the synagogues. The means of religious ed- 
ification which they supplied, took account of the religious 
welfare of all, and consisted of united prayers and the ad- 
dresses of individuals who applied themselves to the study of 
the Old Testament. These means of edification closely 
corresponded to the nature of the new Christian worship. 
This form of social worship, as it was copied in all the reli- 
gious communities founded on Judaism (such as the Es- 
senes), was also adopted, to a certain extent, at the first for- 
mation of the Christian church. But it may be disputed, 
whether the apostles, to whom Christ committed the chief 
direction of affairs, designed from the first that believers 
should form a society exactly on the model of the synagogue, 
and, in pursuance of this plan, instituted particular offices 
for the government of the church corresponding to that 
model — or whether, without such a preconceived plan, dis- 
tinct offices were appointed, as circumstances required, in 
doing which they would avail themselves of the model of 
the synagogue with which they were familiar." 2 The lat- 
ter supposition is forcibly advocated by Neander, 3 who pro- 
ceeds to say, " Hence, we are disposed to believe, that the 
church was at first composed entirely of members standing 
on an equality with one another, and that the apostles alone 
beld a higher rank, and exercised a directing influence over 
the whole, which arose from the original position in which 
Christ had placed them in relation to other believers; so that 
the whole arrangement and administration of the affairs of 

* Apost. Kirch. 3d edit. p. 31. Comp. 179, 198. 
3 Comp., also, Rothe, Anfange, p. 163. Note. 



MODEL OF THE PRIMITIVE CHURCHES. 43 

the church proceeded from them, and they were first indu- 
ced by particular circumstances to appoint other church 
officers, as in the instance of deacons." 4 To the same 
effect is also Neander's account of this subject in his Church 
History, where he shows that this organization of Christian 
churches was the most natural under existing circumstances, 
and the most acceptable, not only to Jewish converts, but to 
those who were gathered from the subjects of the Roman 
government. 5 If the reader require other authority on this 
subject, he has only to examine Vitringa, De Synagoga Ve- 
tere, especially his third book, to say nothing of Selden, 
Lightfoot, and many others. Vitringa himself has fully sus- 
tained the bold title which he gives to his immortal work, 
— " Three books on the ancient Synagogue ; in which it is 
demonstrated, that the form of government and of the min- 
istry in the synagogue was transferred to the Christian 
church." 

It is gratifying to observe, that these views of the great 
Lutheran historian are fully avowed by Archbishop Whately 
with his usual independence and candor. "It is probable 
that one cause, humanly speaking, why we find in the Sa- 
cred Books less information concerning the Christian minis- 
try and the constitution of church-governments than we 
otherwise might have found, is that these institutions had less 
of novelty than some would at first sight suppose, and that 
many portions of them did not wholly originate with the 
apostles. It appears highly probable, — I might say, morally 
certain, — that, wherever a Jewish synagogue existed, that 
was brought, — the whole, or the chief part of it, — to em- 
brace the gospel, the apostles did not, there, so much form a 
Christian church (or congregation,* ecclesia), as make an 

4 P. 33. Comp. 195, seq. So, also, Rothe, Anfange, S. 146—148. 

5 Kirchen. Gesch. I. S. 183—185. 

* The word " congregation" as it stands in our version of the Old 
Testament, (and it is one of very frequent occurrence in the Books of 



44 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

existing congregation Christian ; by introducing the Chris- 
tian sacraments and worship, and establishing whatever reg- 
ulations were requisite for the newly-adopted faith; leaving 
the machinery (if I may so speak) of government, unchang- 
ed ; the " rulers of synagogues, elders, and other officers, 
(whether spiritual or ecclesiastical, or both,) being already 
provided in the existing institutions. And it is likely that 
several of the earliest Christian churches did originate in 
this way ; that is, that they were converted synagogues ; 
which became Christian churches as soon as the members, 
or the main part of the members, acknowledged Jesus as the 
Messiah. 

" The attempt to effect this conversion of a Jewish syna- 
gogue into a Christian church, seems always to have been 
made, in the first instance, in every place where there was 
an opening for it. Even after the call of the idolatrous Gen- 
tiles, it appears plainly to have been the practice of the apos- 
tles Paul and Barnabas,* when they came to any city in 

Moses,) is found to correspond, in the Septuagint, which was famil- 
iar to the New-Testament writers, to ecclesia ; the word which, in 
our version of these last, is always rendered — not "congregation," 
but " church." This, or its equivalent, " kirk," is probably no other 
than "circle;" i. c, assembly, ecclesia. 

* These seem to be the first who are employed in converting the 
idolatrous Gentiles to Christianity,* and their first considerable har- 
vest among these seems to have been at Antioch in Pisidia, as may 
be seen by any one who attentively reads the 13th chapter of Acts. 
Peter was sent to Cornelius, a "devout"" Gentile; — one of those who 
had renounced idolatry, and frequented the synagogues. And these 
seem to have been regarded by him as, in an especial manner, his par- 
ticular charge. His epistles appear to have been addressed to them, 
as may be seen both by the general tenor of his expression,! and es- 
pecially in the opening address, which is not, (as would appear from 
our version,) to the dispersed Jews, but to the "sojourners of the dis- 
persion," naQSTriStjuotg Siaoncoag, i. e. the devout Gentiles living 
among the "dispersion." 

* Sec Barrington's Miscellanea Sacra. 
J See Hinds's History, Vol. IL 



MODEL OF THE PRIMITIVE CHURCHES. 45 

which there was a synagogue, to go thither first and deliver 
their sacred message to the Jews and ' devout (or proselyte) 
Gentiles ;' — according to their own expression (Acts 13: 17), 
to the ' men of Israel and those that feared God :' adding, 
that ' it was necessary that the word of God should first be 
preached to them.' And when they founded a church in any 
of those cities in which (and such were, probably, a very 
large majority) there was no Jewish synagogue that received 
the gospel, it is likely they would still conform, in a great 
measure, to the same model." 6 

It is, then, an admitted fact, as clearly settled as anything 
can be by human authority, that the primitive Christians, in 
the organization of their assemblies, formed them after the 
model of the Jewish synagogue. They discarded the splen- 
did ceremonials of the temple-service, and retained the sim- 
ple rites of the synagogue-worship. They disowned the he- 
reditary aristocracy of the Levitical priesthood, 7 and adopted 
the popular government of the synagogue. 8 

We are here presented with an important fact in the or- 
ganization of the primitive churches, strongly illustrative of 
the popular character of their constitution and government. 
The synagogue was, essentially, a popular assembly, invested 
with the rights and possessing the powers which are essential 
to the enjoyment of religious liberty. Their government was 
voluntary, elective, free ; and administered by rulers or elders 
elected by the people. The ruler of the synagogue was the 
moderator of the college of elders, but only primus inter 
pares, holding no official rank above them. 9 The people, as 

6 Kingdom of Christ, pp. 78—80. 

7 The prelatical reference of the Christian ministry to the Leviti- 
cal priesthood is a device of a later age, though it has been common 
from the time of Cyprian down to the present time. 

8 Totum regimen ecclesiasticum conformatum fuit ad synogogarum 
exemplar. Hugo Grotius, Comment, ad Act. 11: 30. 

9 Vitringa, De Vet. Syn. L. 3. c. 16. 



46 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

Vitringa has shown, 10 appointed their own officers to rule 
over them. They exercised the natural right of freemen to 
enact and execute their own laws, — to admit proselytes, — 
and to exclude, at pleasure, unworthy members from their 
communion. Theirs was " a democratical form of govern- 
ment," and is so described by one of the most able expound- 
ers of the constitution of the primitive churches. 11 Like 
their prototype, therefore, the primitive churches also em- 
bodied the principle of a popular government and of enlight- 
ened religious liberty. 

10 Comp. Vitringa, De Synagoga, Lib. 3. P. I.e. 15. pp. 828—863. 
Nihil actum absque ecclesia, \i. e. the synagogue] quae in publico 
consulta est, et quidem hac ipsa formula : b^W •JIStT sive a£ios 
quam in vertere ecclesia ineligendisepiscopis adhibitam meminimus, 
p. 829. In vita Josephi, . . . publica omnia ibi tractari videmus in 
synagogis, consulto populo, p. 832. 

11 Rothe, AnPange der Christ. Kirch. S. 14. 



CHAPTER III. 

INDEPENDENCE OF THE PRIMITIVE CHURCHES. 

The churches which were established by the apostles and 
their disciples exhibit a remarkable example of unanimity. 
One in faith and the fellowship of love, they were united in 
spirit as different members of one body, or as brethren of 
the same family. 1 This union and fellowship of spirit the 
apostles carefully promoted among all the churches. But 
they instituted no external form of union or confederation 
between those of different towns or provinces ; nor, within 
the first century of the Christian era can any trace of such a 
confederacy, whether diocesan or conventional, be detected 
on the page of history. The diocesan, metropolitan and 
patriarchal forms of organization belong to a later age. 
The idea of a holy catholic church, one and indivisible, had 
not yet arisen in the church, nor had it assumed any out- 
ward form of union. Wherever converts to Christianity 
were multiplied they formed themselves into a church, un- 
der the guidance of their religious teachers, for the enjoy- 
ment of Christian ordinances. But each individual church 
constituted an independent and separate community. The 
society was purely voluntary, and every church so constitu- 
ted was strictly independent of all others in the conduct of 
its worship, the admission of its members, the exercise of 
its discipline, the choice of its officers and the entire man- 
agement of its affairs. They were, in a word, independent 

1 1 Cor. 12: 12, 13. Eph. 2: 20. 4: 3. 



48 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

republics, as Mosheim and Neander justly describe them. 
" Each individual church which had a bishop or presbyter of 
its own, assumed to itself the form and rights of a little dis- 
tinct republic or commonwealth ; and with regard to its in- 
ternal concerns was wholly regulated by a code of laws, that 
if they did not originate with, had at least received the sanc- 
tion of the people constituting such church." This is said 
with special reference to the earliest churches. 2 " In regard 
to the relations of the presbyters to the churches, they were 
appointed, not to exercise unlimited authority, but to act as 
the leaders and rulers of ecclesiastical republics, to transact 
every thing in connection with the church, not as lords of 
the same, but as its servants." 3 The opinion of these great 
historians of the church, in respect to the independent, pop- 
ular character of the government of the primitive churches, 
is sufficiently obvious in these passages. 

Particular neighboring churches may for various reasons 
have sustained peculiar fraternal relations to each other. 
Local and other circumstances may, in time, have given rise 
to correspondence between churches more remote, or to mu- 
tual consultations by letter and by delegates, as in the in- 
stance of the churches at Antioch and Jerusalem, Acts xv, 
and of Corinth and Rome ; 4 but no established jurisdiction 
was exercised by one over the other, nor did any settled re- 
lations subsist between them. The church at Jerusalem, 
with the apostles and elders, addressed the church at An- 
tioch, not in the language of authority, but of advice. Nor 
does ancient history, sacred or profane, relating to this early 
period, record a single instance in which one church pre- 
sumed to impose laws of its own upon another. 

This independence of the churches, one of another, is ful- 
ly and clearly presented by Mosheim. " Although all the 
churches were, in this first stage of Christianity, united to- 

2 Mosheim, De Rebus Christ., Saec. 11. § 22. 

3 Neander, Allgemein. Gesch., I. 201, 2. 

4 See Epistle of Clement of Rome, to the Corinthians. 



INDEPENDENCE OF THE CHURCHES. 49 

gether in one common bond of faith and love, and were, in 
every respect, ready to promote the interest and welfare of 
each other by a reciprocal interchange of good offices, yet, 
with regard to government and internal economy, every indi- 
vidual church considered itself as an independent community,, 
none of them ever looking beyond the circle of its own mem- 
bers for assistance, or recognizing any sort of external in- 
fluence or authority. Neither in the New Testament, nor 
in any ancient document whatever, do we find anything re- 
corded, from which it might be inferred that any of the mi- 
nor churches were at all dependent on, or looked up for di- 
rection to, those of greater magnitude or consequence. On 
the contrary, several things occur therein which put it out of 
all doubt, that every one of them enjoyed the same rights, 
and was considered as being on a footing of the most perfect 
equality with the rest. Indeed it cannot, I will not say be 
proved, but even be made to appear probable, from testimo- 
ny human or divine, that in this age it was the practice for 
several churches to enter into and maintain among them- 
selves, that sort of association which afterwards came to sub- 
sist among the churches of almost every province. I allude 
to their assembling by their bishops, at stated periods, for the 
purpose of enacting general laws, and determining any ques- 
tions or controversies that might arise respecting divine mat- 
ters. It is not until the second century, that any traces of 
that sort of association from whence councils took their ori- 
gin are to be perceived ; when we find them occurring here 
and there, some of them tolerably clear and distinct, others 
again but slight and faint, which seems plainly to prove that 
the practice arose subsequently to the times of the apostles, 
and that all that is urged concerning the councils of the 
first century, and the divine authority of councils, is sustain- 
ed merely by the most uncertain kind of evidence, namely, 
the practice and opinion of more recent times." 5 

5 De Rebus Christ , Saec. I. § 48. 
5 



50 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

Indications of this original independence are distinctly 
manifest even after the rise of Episcopacy. Every bishop 
had the right to form his own liturgy and creed, and to set- 
tle at pleasure his own time and mode of celebrating the re- 
ligious festivals. 6 Cyprian strongly asserts the right of every 
bishop to make laws for his own church. Socrates assigns 
this original independence of the bishops as the principal 
cause of the endless controversies in the church, respecting 
the observance of Easter and other festivals. 7 

But we need not enlarge. Nothing in the history of the 
primitive churches is more incontrovertible, than the fact of 
their absolute independence one of another. It is attested 
by the highest historical authorities, and appears to be gene- 
rally conceded by Episcopal authors themselves. " At first," 
says the learned Dr. Barrow, " every church was settled 
apart under its own bishop and presbyters, so as indepen- 
dently and separately to manage its own concerns. Each 
was governed by its own head and had its own laws." 8 

"Every church," according to Dr. Burton, "had its own 
spiritual head or bishop, and was independent of every other 
church, with respect to its own internal regulations and laws. 
There was, however, a connexion, more or less intimate, be- 
tween neighboring churches, which was a consequence, in 
some degree, of the geographical or civil divisions of the 
empire. Thus the churches of one province, such as Acha- 
ia, Egypt, Cappadocia, etc., formed a kind of union, and the 
bishop of the capital, particularly if his see happened to be 
of apostolic foundation, acquired a precedence in rank and 
dignity over the rest. This superiority was often increased 
by the bishop of the capital (who was called, in later times, 
the metropolitan) having actually planted the church in small- 

6 Greiling, Apostol. Christengemeine. S. 16. 

7 Eccles. Hist. Lib. 5. c. 22. 

8 Treatise on Pope's Supremacy, Works, Vol. I. p. GC2. Comp. 
King's Prim. Christ, c. 12. p. 14, also 136. 



INDEPENDENCE OF THE CHURCHES. 51 

er and more distant places ; so that the mother-church, as it 
might literally be termed, continued to feel a natural and 
parental regard for the churches planted by itself. These 
churches, however, were wholly independent in matters of 
internal jurisdiction; though it was likely that there would 
be a resemblance, in points even of slight importance, be- 
tween churches of the same province." 

Riddle's account of this subject is as follows : — " The 
apostles or their representatives exercised a general superin- 
tendence over the churches by divine authority, attested by 
miraculous gifts. The subordinate government of each par- 
ticular church was vested in itself; that is to say, the whole 
body elected its ministers and officers, and was consulted 
concerning all matters of importance. All churches were in- 
dependent of each other, but were united by the bonds of 
holy charity, sympathy and friendship." 9 

Similar views are also expressed by Archbishop Whately. 
" Though there was one Lord, one faith, one baptism, for all 
of these, yet they were each a distinct, independent commu- 
nity on earth, united by the common principles on which 
they were founded by their mutual agreement, affection and 
respect; but not having any one recognized head on earth, 
or acknowledging any sovereignty of one of those societies 
over others. Each bishop originally presided over one en- 
tire church." 10 Now what, according to these Episcopal 
concessions, was the bishop at first, but the pastor of a single 
church, a parochial bishop, exercising only the jurisdiction, 
and enjoying the rights of an independent Congregational 
clergyman 1 But more of this hereafter. 

Several of the ancient churches firmly asserted and main- 
tained their original religious liberty, by refusing to acknow- 
ledge the authority of the ancient councils, for a long time 
after the greater part of the churches had subjected them- 

9 Chronology, Beginning of Second Century. 

10 Kingdom of Christ. N. Y. 1842; p. 110, 136. 



52 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

selves to the authority of these confederacies. The church 
in Africa, for example, and some of the Eastern churches, al- 
though they adopted the custom of holding councils, and 
were in correspondence with these churches, declined en- 
tering into any grand Christian confederation with them; 
and continued for some time inflexibly tenacious of their 
own just liberty and independence. This their example is 
an effectual refutation of those who pretend that these coun- 
cils were divinely appointed and had, jure divino, authority 
over the churches. Who can suppose that these churches 
would have asserted their independence so sternly, against 
an institution appointed by our Lord or his apostles? 11 

The early independence of the churches, then, is conced- 
ed even by Episcopalians themselves. It has both the sanc- 
tion of apostolic precedent, and the concurring authority of 
ecclesiastical writers, ancient and modern. This of itself is a 
point strongly illustrative of the religious freedom which was 
the basis of their original polity. This independence of par- 
ticular churches is the great central principle, the original 
element, of their popular constitution and government. It 
vests the authority and power of each church in its own 
members collectively. It guards their rights. It guarantees to 
them the elective franchise, and ensures to them the enjoyment 
of religious liberty, under a government administered by the 
voice of the majority, or delegated at pleasure to their repre- 
sentatives. The constitution of the churches and their mutual 
relations, may not have been precisely Congregational or Pres- 
byterian, but they involved the principles of the religious free- 
dom and the popular rights which both are designed to protect. 

11 Even the council of Nice, in treating of the authority of the 
metropolitan bishops of Rome, Antioch and Alexandria, rests the dig- 
nity and authority of these prelates, not on any divine right, but 
solely on ancient usage. Td aoyuta, I'&rj ttQarstro, etc., tTrsidtj y.al raj 
iv r?~j Po>juy tnioxonoj a> vjj&eg torlv, Can. 6. Comp. Da Pin, An- 
tiq. Eccl. Disciplina. Diss. 1. § 7. Mosheim, De Rebus Christ., 
Saec. II. § 23, Note. 



CHAPTER IV. 

ELECTIONS BY THE CHURCH. 

The right of suffrage was, from the beginning, enjoyed in 
the Christian church. The first public act of this body was 
a formal recognition and a legitimate exercise of this right. 
First in importance among their popular rights, they main- 
tained it with greater constancy than any other against the 
usurpations of prelatical power, and resigned it last of all 
into the hands of their spiritual oppressors. The subject of 
the following chapter leads us to consider, 

I. The evidence that the right of suffrage was enjoyed by 
the primitive church. 

II. The time and means of the extinction of this right. 

I. The members of the primitive church enjoyed the right 
of electing, by a popular vote, their own officers and teachers. 
The evidence in support of this position is derived from the 
writings of the apostles and of the early fathers. In the former 
we have on record instances of the election of an apostle, 
and of deacons, delegates and presbyters of the church, each 
by a popular vote of that body. From the latter, we learn 
that the church continued for several centuries subsequent 
to the age of the apostles, in the enjoyment of the elective 
franchise. 

5* 



54 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

1. The scriptural argument, from the writings of the 
apostles. 

(a) The election of an apostle. 

The first public act of the church after our Lord's ascen- 
sion, was the choice of a substitute in the place of the apostle 
Judas. This election was made, not by the apostles them- 
selves, but by the joint action of the whole body of believers. 
If, in any instance, the apostles had the right, by their own 
independent authority, to invest another with the ministerial 
office, we might expect them to exercise that prerogative in 
supplying this vacancy in their own body. That right, how- 
ever, they virtually disclaimed, by submitting the election to 
the arbitration of the assembled body of believers. If they 
exercised any leading influence in the election, it was in 
nominating the two candidates for office, Joseph and Mat- 
thias, Acts 1: 23. Nothing, however, -appears from the con- 
text to decide whether even the nomination proceeded from 
them, or from the church collectively. But however that 
may be, the election was the act of the assembly ; and was 
made, either by casting lots, or by an elective vote. Mosheim 
understands the phrase, sdcoxev xltjoovg avrwv, to express the 
casting of a popular vote by the Christians. To express the 
casting of lots, according to this author, the verb should have 
been epalov, as in Matth. 27: 35. Luke 23: 34. John 19: 24. 
Mark 15: 24. Comp. Septuagint, Ps. 22: 19. Joel 3:3. Nah. 
3: 10 ; which also accords with the usage of Homer in simi- 
lar cases. 1 But the phrase, edcoxev xh'joovg, according to this 
author, expresses the casting of a popular vote ; the term, 
nlrjoovg, being used in the sense of xpijyog, a suffrage, or 
vote, so that what the evangelist meant to say was simply this : 
" and those who were present gave their votes." 2 

The precise mode of determining the election, perhaps, 
cannot be fully settled. Nor are the persons who gave 

1 Iliad, 23. 352. Odyss. 14 209. 

2 De Rebus Christ., Saec. 1. § 14. Note. 



ELECTIONS BY THE CHURCH. 55 

the vote clearly designated, but they appear to have been the 
whole body of believers then present. When we compare 
this election with that of the deacons, which soon followed, 
and consider the uniform custom of the disciples to sub- 
mit to the church the enacting of their own laws, and the 
exercise of their popular rights, in other respects, we must 
regard the election before us, as the joint act of the brethren 
there assembled. For this opinion, we have high authority 
from German writers. " The whole company of believers 
had a part in supplying the number of the apostles them- 
selves, and the choice was their joint act." 3 " At the request 
of the apostles, the church chose, by lot, Matthias for an 
apostle, in the place of Judas." 4 " Without doubt, those 
expositors adopt the right view, who suppose that not only 
the apostles, but all the believers were at that time assem- 
bled ; for, though in Acts 1: 26, the apostles are primarily 
intended, yet the disciples collectively form the chief subject, 
Acts 1: 15, to which all at the beginning of the second chap- 
ter necessarily refers." 5 This is said with reference to the 
assembly on the day of Pentecost, but the reasoning shows 
distinctly the views of the author respecting the persons 
who composed the assembly at the election of Matthias. 
" In all decisions and acts, even in the election of the twelfth 
apostle, the church had a voice." 6 

Chrysostom's exposition of the passage, confirmed as it is 
also by Cyprian, may, without doubt, be received as a fair 
expression of the sentiments and usages of the early church 
on this subject. " Peter did everything here with the com- 
mon consent; nothing, by his own will and authority. He 
left the judgment to the multitude, to secure the respect 

3 Rohr, Kritischen Predigerbibliothek. Bd. 13. Heft. 6. 
i 4 D. Grossmann, Ueber eine Reformation der protestantischen Kir- 
chenverfassung in Konigreiche Sachsen. Leipsig, 1833, S. 47. 

5 Neander, Apost. Kirch. I. c. 1. Note. 

6 Greiling, Apostol. Kirchengemeine, S. 15. 



56 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

to the elected, and to free himself from every invidious re- 
flection." After quoting the words, " they appointed two," 
he adds, " he did not himself appoint them, it was the act 
of all." 7 

The order of the transaction appears to have been as follows : 
Peter stands up in the midst of the disciples, convened in 
assembly to the number of one hundred and twenty, and 
explains to them the necessity of choosing another apostle 
in the place of the apostate Judas, and urges them to pro- 
ceed to the election. The whole assembly then designate 
two of their number as candidates for the office, and after 
prayer for divine direction, all cast lots, and the lot falls upon 
Matthias ; 8 or, according to Mosheim, all cast their votes, and 
the vote falls upon Matthias. Whatever may have been the 
mode of the election, it appears to have been a popular vote, 
and indicates the inherent right of the people to make the 
election. 

(&) The election of the seven deacons, Acts 6: 1 — 6. 

Here again the proposition originated with the apostles. 
It was received with approbation by the whole multitude, who 
immediately proceeded to make the election by a united 
and public vote. The order of the transaction is very clear- 
ly marked. The apostles propose to " the multitude of the 
disciples" the appointment of the seven. The proposal is 
favorably received by " the whole multitude," who accord- 
ingly proceed to the choice of the proposed number, and set 
them before the apostles, not to ratify the election, but to 
induct them into office by the laying on of hands. This 
election is clearly set forth as the act of the whole assembly 
and is so universally admitted to have been made by a pop- 
ular vote, that it may be passed without further remark. In- 
deed, " it is impossible," as Owen observes, " that there 
should be a more evident convincing instance and example 

7 Horn, ad locum, Vol. IX. p. 25. Comp. Cyprian, Ep. 68. 

8 Rothe, Anfange der Christ. Kirch. S. 149. 



ELECTIONS BY THE CHURCH. 57 

of the free choice of ecclesiastical officers by the multitude 
or fraternity of the church, than is given us herein. Nor 
was there any ground or reason why this order and process 
should be observed, why the apostles would not themselves 
nominate and appoint persons, whom they saw and knew 
meet for this office to receive it, but that it was the right and 
liberty of the people, according to the mind of Christ, to 
choose their own officers, which they would not abridge or 
infringe." 9 

(c) The election of delegates of the churches. 

These delegates were the fellow-laborers and assistants 
of the apostle, to accompany him in his travels, to assist in 
setting in order the churches, and generally to supply his 
lack of service to all the churches, the care of which came 
upon him. Such, according to Rothe, was Timothy, whom 
he commends as his fellow-laborer, Rom. 16: 21. I Thess. 
3: 2, and associates with himself in salutation to the church- 
es. Phil. 1: 1. 1 Thess. 1: 1. 2 Thess. 1: 1., etc. Such was 
Titus, 2 Cor. 8: 23. Sikanus, 1 Thess. 1: 1. 2 Thess 1: 
1. Mark, Coloss. 4: 10. 1 Peter 5: 13. Clemens, Phil. 4: 
3. Epaphras, Coloss. 1: 7, etc. 10 

But whatever may have been the specific duties of this 
office, the appointment to it was made by a vote of the 
church. One such assistant Paul greatly commends, who 
was appointed by the church %8iQOTovq&slg vito zav ixxlq- 
Gear, 2 Cor. 8: 19, as his travelling companion. To this 
and the election of the seven deacons, Neander refers, as 
evidence of the manner in which this popular right was ex- 
ercised in the churches. "Inasmuch as the apostles sub- 
mitted the appointment of the deacons to the vote of the 
church, and that of the delegates who should accompany 
them in the name of the churches, we may infer that a sim- 
ilar course was pursued also in the appointment of other 
officers of the church." 11 

9 Gospel Church, Chap. IV. 10 Anfange, I. S" 305—307. 

» Allgemein. Gesch. I. S. 290. 



58 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

Rothe appeals to the same example, as a clear instance 
of a popular election, and adds, that it harmonizes with the 
authority of Clement of Rome, who states explicitly, that 
where the apostles had established churches they appointed 
bishops and deacons, " with the approbation of the whole 
church" 6W8vdo>it]od6T]g rijs faLxkrjGiug. 1 ® 

(d) The election of presbyters. 

That presbyters were elected by the church is a fair con- 
clusion from the examples that have already been given. If 
the apostles submitted to the church the election of one of 
their number as an extraordinary and temporary minister, 
much more may they be supposed to have submitted to the 
same body the election of their ordinary pastors and teach- 
ers, the presbyters. Or, if there be any doubt as to the 
choice of Matthias by the church, there can be none of the 
election of the deacons and delegates by a popular vote. In 
this conclusion, we are sustained by the authority of Nean- 
der, 13 Rothe 14 and Mosheim. " That the presbyters of the 
primitive church of Jerusalem were elected by the suffrages 
of the people, cannot, I think, well be doubted by any one 
who shall have duly considered the prudence and moderation 
discovered by the apostles, in filling up the vacancy in their 
own number, and in appointing curators or guardians for the 
poor." 15 After having proceeded to invest the churches with 
the right of electing their own officers, can the apostles be 
supposed to have invaded this sacred right, by refusing to them 
the election of their own pastors and teachers ? 

These several instances of election chiefly relate to the 
church at Jerusalem. But wherever churches were planted 
by the apostles, they were, without doubt, organized after 
the original plan of that at Jerusalem ; so that the above is 
a fair exhibition of the mode of appointment which general- 
ly prevailed in the churches. " The new churches," says 

12 Anfange, I. S. 151. 13 , 14 Cited above. 

15 Mosheim, De Rebus Christ., Saec I. § 39. 



ELECTIONS BY THE CHURCH. 59 

Gieseler, u every where formed themselves on the model of 
the mother church at Jerusalem." 16 So also, Mosheim : 
" Since all these churches were constituted and formed after 
the model of that which was planted at Jerusalem, a review 
of the constitution and regulations of this one church alone 
will enable us to form a tolerably accurate conception of the 
form and discipline of all these primitive Christian assem- 
blies."^ 

In the gentile churches the popular principle is more 
strongly marked than in the Jewish churches, but the organ- 
ization of all appears, at first, to have been essentially the 
the same. At a later period, all may have been more or 
less modified by peculiar circumstances, and a greater differ- 
ence may naturally appear in the government of different 
churches. 

The conclusion therefore is, that the apostolical churches, 
generally, exercised the right of universal suffrage. 

On the same principle, Paul and Barnabas may be pre- 
sumed to have proceeded, when in their missionary tour, 
they appointed presbyters in the churches which they visited, 
Acts 14: 23. The question here turns wholly upon the in- 
terpretation of the term, yEiQOTOvr^avreg, " when they had 
ordained" or, as in the margin, " when with lifting up of 
hands they had chosen them" 

If, according to the marginal reading, we understand, 
with our interpreters, the declaration to be, that the apostles 
made choice of these disciples, even this supposition does 
not necessarily exclude the members of the church them- 
selves from participating in the election. It would imply 
rather, that Paul and his companion proceeded in the usual 
way by calling the attention of the churches to the election of 
their own presbyters; just as in the instructions which Paul 
gives to Titus and to Timothy, respecting the apppointment 

16 Cunningham's Trans. I. p. 56. 

17 De Rebus Christ., Saec. I. § 67. 



69 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

of presbyters and deacons for the churches of Ephesus and 
Crete respectively, the participation of these churches in the 
appointment is of necessity pre-supposed. For, " from the 
fact, that Paul, in committing to his pupils, as to Timothy 
and Titus, the organization of new churches, or of those 
which had fallen into many distractions, committed to them 
also the appointment of the presbyters and deacons, and di- 
rected their attention to the qualifications requisite for such 
offices, — -from this fact we are by no means to infer, that 
they themselves effected this alone, without the participation 
of the churches. Much more, indeed, does the manner in 
which Paul himself is elsewhere wont to address himself to 
the whole church, and to claim the co-operation of the 
whole, authorize us to expect, that at least where there ex- 
isted a church already established, he would have required 
their co-operation also in matters of common concern. But 
the supposition is certainly possible, that the apostle, in 
many cases, and especially in forming a new church, might 
think it best himself to propose to the church the persons 
best qualified for its officers, and such a nomination must 
naturally have had great weight. In the example of the 
family of Stephanus at Corinth, we see the members of the 
household first converted in the city, becoming, also, the first 
to fill the offices of the church." 18 Neander also asserts, 
that this mode of election, by the whole body of the church, 
remained unimpaired in the third century. 19 

The foregoing views of Neander, together with the follow- 
ing extract from Mosheim, give us a clear view of the man- 
ner in which the elective franchise was exercised in the 
primitive church, through the first three centuries of the 
Christian era. " To them (the multitude, or people) be- 
longed the appointment of the bishop and presbyters, as well 
as of the inferior ministers, — with them resided the power 

13 Apost. Kirch. Vol. I. c. 5. p. 194. 

19 Neander, Allgera. Gesch. I. 323 seq. 340—342, 2d ed. 



ELECTIONS BY THE CHURCH. 61 

of enacting laws, as also of adopting or rejecting whatever 
might be proposed in the general assemblies, and of expell- 
ing and again receiving into communion any depraved or 
unworthy members. In short, nothing whatever, of any 
moment, could be determined on, or carried into effect, with- 
out their knowledge and concurrence." 20 

But the phrase itself, yEiQOtor^aavTeg, may with great 
probability be understood to indicate that the appointment 
of these presbyters was by a public vote of the church. 

(a) This is the appropriate meaning of the term, %siqoto- 
veiv, which is here used. It means, to stretch out the hand, 
to hold up the hand, as in voting ; hence, to give one's vote, 
by holding up the hand, to choose, to elect. In this sense it is 
abundantly used in classic Greek. Demosthenes exhorts the 
Athenians in popular assembly to elect, ysioozovrjacu, ten men 
to go on an embassy to the Thebans.* Again it is resolved 
by the senate and people of Athens to choose, tlsa&ai, five 
of the people to go on an embassy, which embassadors, thus 
chosen, yaiqorovri&ivrag, shall depart, etc. So it is rendered 
by Robinson, who, in the passage before us, translates it, to 
choose by vote, to appoint. Suidas also renders it by ixlE^d- 
fievoi, having chosen. Such is the concurring authority of 
lexicographers. 3 

(/9) This rendering is sustained by the common use of the 
term by early Christian writers. The brother who accom- 
panied Paul in his agency to make charitable collections for 
the suffering Jews in Judea, was chosen of the churches for 
this service, where the same word is used, yinQozovrfteig. 
" It will become you," says Ignatius to the church at Phila- 
delphia, " as the church of God, to choose, yeigotovijaai, 
some deacon to go there," i. e., to the church at Antioch. 21 

Again, to the church at Smyrna, "It will be fitting, and 

20 De Rebus Christ., Saec. I. §45. 

* Oration on the Crown § 55. and § 9. 21 Ad Phil. c. 10. 

6 



62 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

for the honor of God, that your church elect, %eiQ070vrj(j()u, 
some worthy delegate," etc. 22 

The council of Neocaesarea directs that a presbyter 
should not be chosen, [atj %£iqotov£To&co, before he is thirty 
years old. 23 The council of Antioch forbids a bishop to be 
chosen, iziqotovhio&w, without the presence of the synod, 
and of the metropolitan ; 24 and the apostolical canons direct 
that a bishop must be chosen, ^fiQOTOV£i6&co, by two or 
three bishops. 25 Again, in the Greek version of the Codex 
Ecclesiae Africanae, the heading of the nineteenth canon is, 
that a bishop should not be chosen, yEiootovziadai, except 
by the multitude, dnb 7To)Jmv.~ 6 

The above examples all relate, neither to an official ap- 
pointment or commission granted by another, nor to an or- 
dination or consecration, but to an actual election by a plu- 
rality of voters. Do they not justify the supposition, that 
Paul and Barnabas, like the apostles in the case of Matthias, 
and of the seven deacons, led the church to a popular elec- 
tion of their presbyters ? 

(jk) This mode of appointment was the established usage 
of the churches, to which it may be presumed that Paul and 
Barnabas adhered, in the election of these presbyters. 'The 
appointment of Matthias the apostle, of the seven deacons, 
and of the delegates of the churches, as we have already 
seen, was by a public vote of the churches. And the same 
continued to be the authorized mode of appointment at the 
close of the apostolical age ; as we learn from the epistle of 
Clement, cited above, who also rebukes the church of Cor- 
inth for rejecting from office those presbyters who had 
been chosen in this manner. 27 No other mode of appoint- 
ment to any office in the church had, in any instance, been 

22 Ad Smyrn. c. 11. 23 Cone. Neocaesar. c. II. 

24 Cone. Antioch. c. 19. 25 Can. Apost. c. 1. 

26 Cited by Suicer, ad vertmm. 

27 Ep. I. ad Corinth. §44. See p. 65. note. 



• 



ELECTIONS BY THE CHURCH. 63 

adopted, so far as we are informed ; from all which, the in- 
ference is, that presbyters, like all other ecclesiastical officers, 
were appointed by vote of the church. 

(<5) This conclusion is sustained by the most approved 
authorities. According to Suicer, the primary and appro- 
priate signification of the term is, to denote an election made 
by the uplifting of the hand, and particularly denotes the 
election of a bishop by vote. " In this sense," he adds, " it 
continued for a long time to be used in the church denot- 
ing not an ordination or consecration, but an election." 28 
Grotius, 29 Meyer, 30 and De Wette 31 so interpret the passage, 
to say nothing of Beza, Bohmer, Rothe and others. 

To the same effect is also the following extract from Tin- 
dal. " We read only of the apostles, constituting elders by 
the suffrages of the people, Acts 14: 23, which, as it is the 
genuine signification of the Greek word, lEiQozovqoavzsg, so 
it is accordingly interpreted by Erasmus, Beza, Diodati, 
and those who translated the Swiss, French, Italian, Belgic, 
and even English Bibles, till the Episcopal correction, which 
leaves out the words, by election, as well as the marginal 
notes, which affirm that the apostles did not thrust pastors 
into the church through a lordly superiority, but chose and 
placed them there by the voice of the congregation."^ Tyn- 
dale's translation is as follows. " And when they had or- 
dened them seniours by eleccion, in every congregacion, 
after they had preyde and fasted, they commennd them to 
God, on whom they beleved." 

In view of the whole, must we not conclude, that presby- 
ters, like all other ecclesiastical officers, were elected in the 
apostolical churches by the suffrages of the people? 33 And 

23 Thesaurus, Eccl. v. ysi^oxovko. 23 , 30 , 31 Comment, ad locum. 

32 Rights of the Church, p. 358. 

33 " Jt may not have occurred to some of our readers," says the 
Edinburgh Review, " that the Greek word, ixY.Xrjoia, which we trans- 
late clturch, was the peculiar term used to denote the general assem- 
bly of the people in the old democracies, and that it essentially ex- 



64 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

is not all this sufficient to justify the rendering above given, 
though the term be also occasionally used to denote either 
an official appointment, or the laying on of hands ? 

2. The historical argument, from the early Fathers. 

When from the writings of the apostles we turn to the 
records of history, we find evidence sufficient to show that 
the churches continued, even after the rise of Episcopacy, 
to defend and to exercise the right of election, — that great 
principle which is the basis of religious liberty. 

The earliest and most authentic authority on this sub- 
ject, after that of the Scriptures themselves, is derived from 
Clement of Rome, contemporary with some of the apostles. 
This venerable father, in his epistle to the church at Corinth, 
about A. D. 96, or, according to Bishop Wake, " between 
the 60th and 70th year of Christ," speaks of the regulations 
which were established by the. apostles, for the appointment 
of others to succeed them after their decease. This ap- 
pointment was to be made with the consent and approbation 
of the whole church, 6vvavdoxi](jd(ji]g rijg ixxlijoiag ndarig, 
grounded on their previous knowledge of the qualifications 
of the candidate for this office. This testimony clearly in- 
dicates the active co-operation of the church in the appoint- 
ment of their ministers. 34 " It may have been the custom 

presses a popularly constituted meeting, and that such, in a great 
measure, was the original constitution of the Christian society." — 
Baudry's Selections, V. p. 319. 

34 The passage has been already cited, but it is here given at length, 
with the title of C. J. Hefele : " Apostolorum institutio, ne de mu- 
nere sacer dotali contentio fiat. Legitime electos ac. recte viventes de 
munerc svo dejiccre ncfas. — Kal oi arroaroXoi t^mv lyviocav did rov 
xi'Qi'ov ?jjttMV 'Irjoou Xqigtovj bri fgig larcu tnl rov ovo/uarog rijg 
tiriGHonfjg. did ravrj]V ovv r?]v airlav TCQoyvojGiv bthjcfors? rs/.eiuv 
xariGTTjoav rovg TrQO&torptlvorg, xai 'fi&rctfcv £7Ttvout)v dtdo'r/taoiv, 
OTtojg, idv xoi/A?]\ro)Giv, Siadt^tovrai trspoi StdoxiuaGun'oi avSpsg rr}v 
feiTovqylav uvtmv. Tovg ovv y.araGtad'iVTag vn ixsivoav, r\ fxera^u 



ELECTIONS BY THE CHURCH. 65 

for the presbyters to propose one to supply 'any vacancy 
which occurred ; but it remained for the church to ratify or 
to reject the nomination." 35 

Tertullian in his Apology for Christians, against the hea- 
then, A. D. 198 or 205, says that the elders came into their 
office by the testimony of the people, that is, by the suffrage 
or election of the people. 36 Their free and independent 
suffrages were the highest testimony which the people could 
give of their approbation of their elders. 

The epistles of Ignatius, whether genuine or spurious, 
belong to the period of which we are now treating. These, 
as we have seen above, accord to the church the right of 
electing their own delegates. 

Origen, in his last book against Celsus, about A. D. 240, 
speaks of the elders and rulers of the churches as ixXeyo- 
fisvoi, chosen to their office. In his sixth homily on Leviticus, 
he asserts that the presence of the people is required in the 
ordination of a priest ; and the reason assigned for their in- 
tervention is to secure an impartial election, and the appoint- 
ment to this office of one who possessed the highest quali- 
fications for it. The whole passage implies the active co- 
operation of the people in the appointment of their minis- 
ters. 37 

v(p stIqojv eXXoyi'fiojv olvSqwv, ovvsvdox^adGtje Trjg ixzXij- 
a lag n d a t] £, xal XetTov^y^Gavzag d/Ltt/unTOjg tw noifivloj tov Xqcg- 
tov /u£t<x raTieivcKfjQOGvvr/Qj rjGvyojg nal dfiavavGOjg, jus/uaQTvy'tj/uzvovg 
T£ TcoXXdlg ygovoig vtto ndvTUJV, zovrovgov Stxawjg vojutto/usv ano^aX— 
Xtodai Tijg XsiTovgyt'ag. ' ' AfjcaQxia ydq ov /uixqu rj/MV I'gtcu, fdv rovg 
a/xefxmojg aal oGiOjg 7iQOGtv£y/.ovTv.g id o(y>qa vrjg 67viG)i07iijg anofd— 
Xajfusv. 

35 Neander, Allgemein. Gesch. I. S. 323, 2d. ed. 

36 Praesident probati quique seniores honorem istum non pretio, sed 
testimonio, adepti. — Jijjol. c. 39. 

37 Requiritur enim in ordinando sacerdote et praesentia populi ut 
sciant omnes, et certe sint, quia qui praestantior est ex omni populo, 
qui doctior, qui sanctior, qui in omni virtute eminentior — ille eligi- 

6* 



66 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

Cyprian, A. D. 258, most fully accords to the people the 
right of suffrage in the appointment of their spiritual teach- 
ers, declaring that they have the fullest authority to choose 
those who are worthy of this office, and to refuse such as 
may be unworthy. It was, according to this father, an apos- 
tolic usage, preserved by a divine authority in his day, and 
observed throughout the churches of Africa [apud nos), that 
a pastor, sacerdos, should be chosen publicly, in the pres- 
ence of the people; and that by their decision thus publicly 
expressed, the candidate should be adjudged worthy to fill 
the vacant office, whether of deacon, presbyter or bishop. 
In accordance with these views, it was his custom, on all 
such occasions, to consult his clergy and the people before 
proceeding to ordain any one to the office of the ministry. 38 

So universal was the right of suffrage, and so reasonable, 
that it attracted the notice of the emperor, Alexander Seve- 
rus, who reigned from A. D. 222 to 235. In imitation of 
the custom of the Christians and Jews, in the appointment of 
their priests, as he says, he gave to the people the right of re- 
jecting the appointment of any procurator, or chief president 
of the provinces, whom he might nominate to such an office. 39 
Their votes, however, in these cases, were not merely testi- 
monial, but really judicial and elective. 

tur ad sacerdotium, et hoc adstante populo, ne qua postmodum, re- 
tractatio cuiquam, ne quis scrupuJus resideret. 

38 Plebs obsequens praeceptis dominicis et Deura metuens, a pecca- 
tore praeposito separare se debet nee se ad sacrilegi sacerdotis sacrifi- 
cia miscere, quando ipsa maxime habeat potestatem vel cligendi dlg- 
nos saccrdoles, vel indignos reevsandi. Quod et ipsum videmus de di- 
vina auctoritate descendere ut sacerdos, plebe prescntc, sub omnium 
oculis deligatur, et dignus atque idoneus publico judicio ac testimo- 
nio comprobetur, — Diligentur, de traditione divina et apostolica ob- 
servatione servandum est et tenendum quod apud nos quoque, et fe- 
re per provincias universas tenetur, ut ad ordinationes rite celebran- 
das ad earn plebem cui praepositus ordinatur, episcopi ejusdem pro- 
vinciae proximi quique conveniant et episcopus deligatur plebe prae- 
sente. — Ep. 68. 

39 Lampridius, in Vit. Alexandra Severi, c. 45. 



ELECTIONS BY THE CHURCH. 67 

The authorities above cited indicate that the suffrages of 
the church were directed by a previous nomination of the 
clergy. But there are on record instances in which the peo- 
ple, of their own accord, and by acclamation, elected indi- 
viduals to the office of bishop or presbyter, without any pre- 
vious nomination. Ambrose, bishop of Milan, was elected 
in this manner, A. D. 374. 40 Martin, of Tours, A. D. 375, 
was appointed in the same manner. 41 So also were Eusta- 
thius at Antioch, A. D. 31 0, 42 Chrysostom at Constantinople, 
A. D. 398, 4 3 Eraclius at Hippo, 44 and Miletus at Antioch. 45 
It is also observable that these examples belong to a later age, 
the fourth century. They are therefore important as evi- 
dence, that people continued even at this late period to re- 
tain their rights in these popular elections. 

It has been asserted, that the people were denied the right 
of suffrage by the 4th canon of the council of Nice. But 
Bingham has clearly shown that the people were not excluded 
by this canon from their ancient privilege in this respect. 46 
And both Riddle, 47 and bishop Pearson, as quoted by him, 
concur with Bingham in opinion on this subject. Indeed the 
assertion is sufficiently refuted, by the fact, that Athanasius, 
bishop of Alexandria, and others, were elected by popular 
vote immediately after the session of that council. 

Daille sums up the evidence on this subject in the follow- 
ing terms: — "It is Clear that in the primitive times they 
[popular elections and ordinations] depended partly on the 
people, and not wholly on the clergy ; but every company 

40 Paulin., Vit. Ambros, Rutin., Hist. Eccl. Lib. 2. c. 11 ; Theo- 
dore!, Hist. Eccl. Lib. 4. c. 6. p. 666; Sozomen, Hist. Eccl. Lib. 
6. c. 24. 

41 Sulpic. Sev., Vit. e. Martini, c. 7. 

42 Theodoret, Hist. Eccl. Lib. 1. c. 6. 

43 Socrat., Hist. Eccl. Lib. 6. c. 2. 

44 Augustin., 4. Ep. 110. al. 213. 

45 Theodoret, Hist Ecc. Lib. 2. c. 27. 

46 Book 4. chap. 2. § 11. 47 Christ. Antiq. p. 286. 



68 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

of the faithful either chose their own pastors, or else had 
leave to consider and to approve of those that were proposed 
to them for that purpose. Pontius, a deacon of the church 
of Carthage, says that " St. Cyprian, being yet a neophyte, 
was elected to the charge of pastor, and the degree of bish- 
op by the judgment of God, and the favor of the people." 48 
St. Cyprian also tells us the same in several places. In his 
52nd epistle, speaking of Cornelius, he says, ' That he was 
made bishop of Rome by the judgment of God, and of his 
Christ, by the testimony of the greatest part of the clergy, by 
the suffrage of the people who were there present, and by the 
college of pastors, or ancient bishops, all good and pious 
men.' 49 

" It appears clear enough, both out of St. Hierome, 50 and 
by the acts of the council of Constantinople, 51 and of Chalce- 
don, 52 and also by the Pontificate Romanum, 53 and several 
other productions, that this custom continued a long time in 
the church." 

This right in question is clearly admitted even in the Ro- 
man pontificial, in which the bishop, at the ordination of a 
priest is made to say, " It was not without good reason that 
the fathers had ordained that the advice of the people should 
be taken in the election of those persons who were to serve 

43 Judicio Dei, et plebis favore, ad officium sacerdotii, et episcopa- 
tus gradum adhuc neophytus, ut putabatur, novellus electus est. — 
Pont. Diac. in vita Cypr. 

49 Factus est autem Cornelius episcopus, de Dei et Christi ejus 
judicio, de clericorum pene omnium testimonio, de plebis, qua? tunc 
adfuit suffragio, et de sacerdotum antiquorum, et bonorum virorum col- 
legio. — Cyprian, Ep. 52. p. 97. 

50 Hieron., Com. 10 .in Ezecb. c. 33 Tom. III. p 935. et Com. in 
Agg. p. 512. t. 5. et Com. 1 in Ep. ad Gal. p. 271. t. 6. 

51 Cone. Const., 1. in Ep. ad Damas. p. 94 et 95. t. 1. Cone. 
Gener. 

52 Cone. Chalced., act. 11. p. 375. t. 2. Cone. Gen., et act. 16. p. 
430, etc. 

53 Pontine. Rom. in Ordinat. Presbyter, fol. 38, vide supr. 1. 1. c. 4. 






ELECTIONS BY THE CHURCH. 69 

at the altar ; to the end that having given their assent to their 
ordination they might the more readily yield obedience to 
those who were so ordained." 54 This passage is cited by 
Daille, who remarks, that an honest canon of Valencia very 
gravely proposed to the council of Trent, that this, and all 
such authorities should be blotted out; so that no trace or 
footstep of them should remain in future, for heretics to bring 
against them for having taken away this right! 

Bingham, 55 and Chancellor King, 56 and multitudes of the 
most respectable writers in the communion of the Episcopal 
church, fully sustain the foregoing representations of the 
right of suffrage as enjoyed by the primitive churches. They 
are clearly supported by the late Dr. Burton, 57 and by Rid- 
dle, both of Oxford University, and by the best authorities 
both ancient and modern. " The mode of appointing bish- 
ops and presbyters," says Riddle, " has been repeatedly 
changed. Election by the people, for instance, has been 
discontinued. This is indeed, in the estimation of Episco- 
palians, a great improvement, but still, as they must allow, it 
is a change." 58 

For what term of time the several churches continued in 
the full enjoyment of the right of suffrage, we are not dis- 
tinctly informed. We can only say with Mosheim, " This 
power of appointing their elders continued to be exercised 
by the members of the church at large, as long as primitive 
manners were retained entire ; and those who ruled over the 
churches did not conceive themselves at liberty to introduce 
any deviation from the apostolic model." 59 The reader will 

54 Neque enira frustra a patribus institutum, ut de electione illorum 
qui ad regimen altaris adhibendi sunt, consulatur etiam populus; 
quia de vita et conversatione praesentandi, quod nonunquam ignoratur 
a pluribus, scitur a paucis; et necesse est, et f'acilius ei quis obedien- 
tiam exhibeat ordinatio cui assensum praebuerit ordinando. — Pontij. 
Rom. De Ordinat. Pres. fol. 38. 

55 Book 4. c. 6. 56 Part I. c. 3.— c. 6. 

57 Church History, c. 12. 58 Christ. Antiq., Preface, p. 76. 

59 De Rebus Christ., Saec. I. § 39. 



70 



THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 



find an able discussion of this whole subject, also, and an 
extended collection of authorities in Blondell's treatise, De 
Plebis in Electionibus jure. 60 

II. Abridgment and final extinction of the right of suf- 
frage. 

The sovereign rights of the people, and their free elective 
franchise began, at an early period, to be invaded. The 
final result of these chancres was a total disfranchisement 
of the laity, and the substitution of an ecclesiastical des- 
potism, in the place of the elective government of the prim- 
itive church. Of these changes one of the most effec- 
tive was the attempt, by means of correspondence and ec- 
clesiastical synods, to consolidate the churches into one 
church universal, to impose upon them a uniform code of 
laws, and establish an ecclesiastical polity administered by 
trie clergy. The idea of a holy catholic church, and of an 
ecclesiastical hierarchy for the government of the same, was 
wholly a conception of the priesthood. Whatever may have 
been the motives with which this doctrine of the unity of 
the church was promulgated, it prepared, the way for the 
overthrow of the popular government of the church. 

Above all, the doctrine of the divine right of the priest- 
hood aimed a fatal blow at the liberties of the people. The 
clergy were no longer the servants of the people, chosen by 
them to the work of the ministry, but a privileged order, 
like the Levitical priesthood; and, like them, by divine 
right invested with peculiar prerogatives. Elated with the 
pride of their divine commission, a degenerate and aspiring 
priesthood sought, by every means, to make themselves in- 
dependent of the suffrages of the people. This indepen- 
dence they began by degrees to assert and to exercise. The 
bishop began, in the third century, to appoint at pleasure 
his own deacons, and other inferior orders of the clergy. In 

60 Apologia pro. St. Hieron. pp. 379—549. 



ELECTIONS BY THE CHURCH. 71 

other appointments, also, he endeavored to disturb the free- 
dom of the elections, and to direct them agreeably to his own 
will.61 

And yet Cyprian, even in the middle of that century, 
apologized to the laity and clergy of his diocese for appoint- 
ing one Auretius to the office of reader. In justification of 
this measure, he pleads the extraordinary virtues of the candi- 
date, the urgent necessity of the case, and the impossibility of 
consulting them as he was wont to do on all such occasions. 69 
Such, however, was the progress of Episcopal usurpation, 
that by the middle of the fourth century, elections by the 
people were nearly lost ; 63 and from the beginning of the 
fifth century, the bishop proceeded to claim the appointment 
even of the presbyters, together with the absolute control of 
all ecclesiastical offices subordinate to his own episcopate. 
But down to the fourth century, the bishops were not at lib- 
erty ever to license one to perform the duties of a presbyter, 
without first obtaining the approbation of the people. Such 
at least was still the rule in many places. 64 

Against these encroachments of ecclesiastical ambition 
and power the people continued to oppose a firm but ineffec- 
tual resistance. They asserted, and in a measure maintain- 
ed, their primitive right of choosing their own spiritual teach- 
ers. 65 The usage of the churches of Africa has been al- 

61 Pertsch. Kirch. Gesch., drit. Jahrhund. S. 439—452. Planck, 
Gesell. Verfassung, I. 183. 

62 In ordinationibus clericis, Fratres carissimi, solemus vos ante 
consulere, et mores ac merita singulorum, communi consilio pende- 
rari, Ep. 33. 

« 3 Pertsch. 4. Jahrhund. S. 263. 

6 * Riddle's Eccl. Chron., A. D. 400. Planck, Vol. I. p. 183. Eu- 
seb. Eccl. Hist. 6. 43. 

65 Gieseler, Vol. I. 272. For a more full and detailed account of 
these changes of ecclesiastical policy, and of the means by which 
they were introduced, the reader is referred to the first volume of J. 
G. Planck, Gesch. der Christ, kirch. Gesellschaftsverfassung, Bd. 
I. 149—212, 433 seq. 



72 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

ready mentioned. Examples are given by Bohmer, 66 in evi- 
dence that this right was still recognized in the churches of 
Spain and of Rome. 67 Later still, in the fourth century, an 
instance occurred in the Eastern church, in Cappadocia, of 
the controlling influence of these popular elections. The 
people, after having been divided in their choice between dif- 
ferent candidates, united their suffrages in the election of an 
individual high in office in the state, who had not even been 
baptized. He accordingly received this ordinance at the 
hands of the bishops present, and was duly invested with his 
office. In the Western church, the election of Martin of 
Tours, A. D. 375, above mentioned, was carried by the pop- 
ular voice, against the decided disapprobation of the bishops 
present. Ambrose, bishop of Milan, A. D. 374, was also 
appointed by the unanimous acclamation of the multitude, 
previously even to his baptism. On the other hand, there 
are on record, instances in the fourth, and even in the fifth 
century, when the appointment of a bishop was effectually 
resisted, by the refusal of the people to ratify the nomination 
of the candidate to a vacant see. 68 

But notwithstanding all these examples, in which the peo- 
ple successfully asserted their ancient right of suffrage, it 
became, as early as the fifth century, little else than an empty 
name. Their elections degenerated into a tumultuous and 
unequal contest with a crafty and aspiring hierarchy, who 
had found means so to trammel and control the elective fran- 
chise, as practically to direct, at pleasure, all ecclesiastical 
appointments. The rule had been established by decree of 
council, and often repeated, requiring the presence and unan- 
imous concurrence of all the provincial bishops in the election 

66 Christ, kirch. Alterthumswissenschaft, I. S. 144 seq 

67 Presbyterio vel episcopatui, si eum cleri ac plebis vocaverit elcc- 
tio, non immerito societur. — Siricius, bishop of Rome, A. D. 384. 
Ep. I. ad Himer. c. 10. 

6S Greg Naz., Orat. 10. Comp. Orat. 14. p. 308. 21. p. 377. Bing- 
ham, B. IV. c. 1. § 3. Planck, 1. 440. n. 10. 



ELECTIONS BY THE CHURCH. 73 

and ordination of one to the office of bishop. This afforded 
them a convenient means of defeating any popular election, 
by an affected disagreement among themselves. The same 
canonical authority had made the co?icurrence of the metropo- 
litan necessary to the validity of any appointment. His veto 
was accordingly another efficient expedient by which to baffle 
the suffrages of the people, and to constrain them into a re- 
luctant acquiescence in the will of the clergy .69 

Elections to ecclesiastical offices were also disturbed by 
the interference of secular influence from without, in conse- 
quence of that disastrous union of church and state, which 
was formed in the fourth century, under Constantine the 
Great, 

"During this century," the fourth, " 1. The emperors 
convened, and presided in, general councils ; 2. Confirmed 
their decrees ; 3. Enacted laws relative to ecclesiastical mat- 
ters by their own authority ; 4. Pronounced decisions con- 
cerning heresies and controversies; 5. Appointed bishops; 
6. Inflicted punishment on ecclesiastical persons. 

" Hence arose complaints that the bishops had conceded 
too much to the emperors, while, on the other hand, some 
persons maintained that the emperors had left too much on the 
hands of the bishops. The bishops certainly did possess too 
much power and influence, to the prejudice of the other cler- 
gy, and especially to the disadvantage of Christians at large. 

" Thus the emperor and the bishops share the chief gov- 
ernment of the church between them. But the limits of 
their authority were not well defined. Great part of the 
power formerly < possessed by the general body of Chris- 
tians, the laity, had passed into the hands of the civil o-ov- 
ernor." 70 

Agitated and harassed by the conflict of these discordant 

69 Cone. Nic. c. 4. Cone. Antioch, c. 19. Carthag. IV. c. 1,22. 
Planck, Vol. I. pp. 433—452. 

70 Riddle's Chronology, pp. 70, 71. 

7 



74 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

elements, the popular assemblies for the election of men to 
fill the highest offices of the holy ministry, became scenes of 
tumult and disorder that would disgrace a modern political 
canvass. " Go and witness the proceedings at our public fes- 
tivals, especially those in which, according to rule, the elec- 
tions of ecclesiastical officers are held. One supports one 
man ; another, another ; and the reason is, that all overlook 
that which they ought to consider, the qualifications, intellect- 
ual and moral, of the candidate. Their attention is turned to 
other points, by which their choice is determined. One is 
in favor of a candidate of noble birth ; another, of a man 
of wealth, who will not need to be supported by the revenues 
of the church ; a third votes for one who has come over from 
some opposite party ; a fourth gives his influence in favor 
of some relative or friend; while another is gained by the 
flatteries of a demagogue." 71 Repeated notices of similar 
disturbances occur in the ecclesiastical writers of that pe- 
riod. 72 

To correct these disorders, various but ineffectual expedi- 
ents were adopted at different times and places. The coun- 
cil of Laodicea, A. D. 361, c. 13, excluded the multitude, 
roig oxXoig, the rabble, from taking part in the choice of per- 
sons for the sacred office, apparently with the design of pre- 
venting these abuses, without excluding the better portion of 
the laymen from a participation in the elections. The expe- 
dient, however, was of little avail. 

71 De Sacerdot. Lib. 3. c. 15. 

72 August., Ep. 155. Synessii, Ep. 67. Sidon, Apollinar. Lib. IV. 
Ep. 25, and other passages collected by Baronius, Annal. 303. n. 22 
seq. and in Baluzii Miscell. torn. 2. Ammianus Marcellinus gives the 
following representation of the unholy contest of the two rival can- 
didates, Damasus and Ursinus, for appointment to the Episcopal see 
at Rome : — " Supra humanum modum ad rapiendam episcopatus se- 
dem ardentes, scissis studiis asperrime conflictabantur, ad usque mor- 
tis, vulnerumque discrimina adjumentis utriusque progressis. Et in 
certatione superaverat Damasus, parte quae ei favebat instante." — 
Lib. 28. Ep. 3. 



ELECTIONS BY THE CHURCH. 75 

In the Latin Church, and especially in that of Africa, an 
attempt was made to restore order and simplicity in these 
elections by means of interveners, or visitors, whose duty it 
was to visit the vacant diocese, and influence the clergy and 
people to harmonize their discordant interests, that thus the 
way might be prepared for a quiet and regular election. By 
this means, the visitor had a fair opportunity, as Bingham 
justly remarks, " to ingratiate himself with the people, and 
promote his own interests among them, instead of those of 
the church." 73 This measure though supported by Symma- 
chus, 74 in the sixth century, and by Gregory the Great, 75 
failed to produce the desired effect ; and seems neither to 
have been generally adopted nor long continued. 

Justinian, in the sixth century, sought, with no better suc- 
cess, to remedy the evils in question, by limiting the elective 
franchise to a mixed aristocracy, composed of the clergy, and 
the chief men of the city. These were jointly to nominate 
three candidates, declaring under oath, that, in making the 
selection, they had been influenced by no sinister motive. 
From these three the ordaining person was to ordain the one 
whom he judged best qualified. 76 But it was not defined who 
should be included among the chief men, and the result was 
the loss of the people's rights, and an increase of the factions 
which the measure was intended to prevent. The council 
of Aries, A. D. 452, c. 54, in like manner, ordered the bish- 
ops to nominate three candidates, from whom the clergy and 
the people should make the election ; and that of Barcelona, 
A. D. 593, ordered the clergy and people to make the nom- 
ination, and the metropolitan and bishops were to determine 
the election by lot. 

But even these ineffectual efforts to restore, in some mea- 

73 Book II. c. 15. § 1. Comp. Book IV. c. 11. § 7. 

74 Ep. 5. c. 6. 75 Ep. Lib. 9. Ep. ]6. 

76 Justin., Novell. 123. c. 1, 137. c. 2d. Cod. Lib. 1. tit. 3. De 
Episcop. leg. 42. 



76 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

sure, the right of the people, sufficiently show to what ex- 
tent it was already lost. Indeed, the bishops had already as- 
sumed to themselves, in some instances, the independent and 
exclusive right of appointing spiritual officers. 77 The em- 
peror Valentinian III. complains of Hilary of Aries, that he 
unworthily ordained some in direct opposition to the will of 
the people ; and that, when they refused those whom they had 
not chosen, he collected an armed body, and by military 
power forcibly thrust into office the ministers of the gospel of 
peace. 78 Leo the Great, A. D. 450, asserts the right of the 
people to elect their spiritual rulers. 79 

The government of the church, from a pure democracy, 
had changed, first into an ambitious aristocracy, and then in- 
to a more oppressive oligarchy, which, assuming practically 
the sentiment of a crafty tyrant, ovx dya&ov TtolvxoiQavirj, 60 
directed its assaults against that most sacred principle both 
of civil and religious liberty, — the right of every corporate 
body to choose its own rulers and teachers. This extinc- 
tion of religious freedom was not effected in the church uni- 
versally at the same time, nor in every place by the same 
means. Oppressed by violence, overreached by stratagem, 
or awed into submission by superstition, the churches sev- 
erally yielded the contest at different and somewhat distant in- 
tervals. In Rome, the rights of the people were recognized 
under Coelestia, A. D. 422, 81 and Leo the Great, A. D. 440, 
which, as we have seen, Justinian attempted to restore in the 
century following. In Gaul, these rights were not wholly 
lost until the fifth, 82 and even the sixth century. 83 

n Sidon, Apollinar. Lib. TV. Ep. 25. 

78 Valentinian III. Nov. XXIV. ad calcem Cod. Theodos. 

79 Qui praefecturus omnibus, ab omnibus eligatur. Ep. 89. Comp. 
Ep. 84. c. 5. 

80 Iliad, II. 204. Paraphrased by Pope, in the following lines : 

Be silent, wretch, and think not here allowed 
That worst of tyrants, an usurping crowd. — Pope. 

81 Ep. 2. c. 5. 82 Sidon, Apollinar. Lib. IV. Ep. 25. 
83 Cone. Orleans, A. D. 549. c. 10. 



ELECTIONS BY THE CHURCH. 77 

The doctrine that to the clergy was promised a divine gui- 
dance from the Spirit of God had its influence also in com- 
pleting the subjugation of the people. This vain conceit, 
by ceaseless repetition on the part of bishops and councils, 
became an unquestionable dogma of the church. Once es- 
tablished, it had great influence in bringing the people into 
passive submission to their spiritual oppressors. Resistance 
to such an authority under the infallible guidance of God's 
Spirit, was rebellion against high heaven, which the laity had 
not the impiety to maintain. 

" Thus everything was changed in the church. At the 
beginning it was a society of brethren ; and now an abso- 
lute monarchy is reared in the midst of them. All Chris- 
tians were priests of the living God, 1 Pet. 2: 9, with hum- 
ble pastors for their guidance. But a lofty head is uplifted 
from the midst of these pastors. A mysterious voice utters 
words full of pride ; an iron hand compels all men, small 
and great, rich and poor, freemen and slaves, to take the 
mark of its power. The holy and primitive equality of souls 
is lost sight of. Christians are divided into two strangely 
unequal classes. On the one side, a separate class of priests 
daring to usurp the name of the church, and claiming to be 
possessed of peculiar privileges in the sight of the Lord. 
On the other, timid flocks, reduced to a blind and passive 
submission; a people gagged and silenced, and delivered 
over to a proud caste." 84 

The interference of the secular power with ecclesiastical 
appointments has been already mentioned. The civil mag- 
istrate often exercised the same arbitrary power in these 
matters which the priesthood had usurped over the people, 
so that the oppressor became in turn the oppressed. This 
secular interference began with Constantine. Both in the 
Eastern and the Western church, it was often the means of 

84 D'Aubigne's Hist, of the Reformation, I. p. 31. 

7* 



78 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

disturbing and overruling the appointment of ecclesiastical 
officers, and finally itself completed the extinction of reli- 
gious liberty. Valentinian III. A. D. 445, for example, 
enacted, that all bishops of the Western empire should obey 
the bishop of Rome, and should be bound to appear before 
him at his summons. 85 Constantius appointed Liberius to 
be bishop of Rome, A. D. 353, and the Gothic kings in the 
sixth century exercised the same arbitrary power over the 
churches ojf France and Spain. 86 

In the Eastern church, Theodosius I. also appointed Nec- 
tarius bishop of Constantinople, A. D. 381 ; 87 and Theodo- 
sius II, in the same summary manner, appointed Proilus, 
A. D. 434, to succeed Maximian in the same place. Of 
the vehemence with which the church sometimes protested 
against these encroachments of secular power, we have a 
remarkable example in the sixth canon of the council of 
Paris, A. D. 557. " Seeing that ancient custom and the 
regulations of the church are neglected, we desire that no 
bishop be consecrated against the will of the citizens. And 
only such persons shall be considered eligible to this digni- 
ty, who may be appointed, not by command of the prince, 
but by the election of the people and clergy ; which elec- 
tion must be confirmed by the metropolitan and the other 
bishops of the province. Any one who may enter upon this 
office by the mere authority of the king, shall not be recogni- 
zed by the other bishops ; and if any bishop should recog- 
nize him, he must himself be deposed from his office." 88 
The eighth council of Rome, also, A. D. 853, forbade, 
on pain of excommunication, " all lay persons whatsoever, 
even princes themselves, to meddle in the election or pro- 
motion of any patriarch, metropolitan, or any other bishop 

85 Riddle's Eccl. Chron. p. 103. 

86 Simonis, Vorlesungen Uber diechristlichen Allerthumer p. 106. 

87 Bohmer's Alterthumswissenschaft, Vol. 1. p. 151. 

88 Cone. Paris, c. 8. 






ELECTIONS BY THE CHURCH. 79 

whatever, declaring withal, that it is not fit that lay persons 
should have anything at all to do in these matters; it becom- 
ing them rather to be quiet, and patiently to attend until 
such time as the election of the bishop who is to be chosen, 
be regularly finished by the college of the church." 89 

Such demands for the institution of apostolical and canon- 
ical elections, as they were called, 90 were, however, but rare- 
ly made, and never with success. The clergy were brought 
to bow to a usurpation more absolute and despotic than 
that by which they had at first wrested from the laity those 
rights, which, in their turn, they were reluctantly compell- 
ed to resign to the secular power, until at length the pope, 
that prince of tyrants, became the supreme head of all 
power, whether ecclesiastical or secular. Innocent III. at 
the close of the twelfth century, described himself as " the 
successor of St. Peter, set up by God to govern not only the 
church but the whole world. As God," said he, " has placed 
two great luminaries in the firmament, the one to rule the 
day, and the other to give light by night, so has he establish- 
ed two great powers, the pontifical and the royal ; and as 
the moon receives her light from the sun, so does royalty bor- 
row its splendor from the papal authority !" 



REMARKS. 

The right of suffrage involves all the great principles of a 
popular government. The rights and privileges belonging to 

89 Neminem laicorum principum, vel Potentum semet inserere 
electioni vel promotioni Patriarch®, vel Metropolitae, aut cujuslibet 
episcopi, etc. pra3sertim cum nullam in talibus potestatem quenquam 
potestativorum, vel ceterorum laicorum habere conveniat, sed potius 
silere, ac attendere sibi, usque quo regulariter a collegio ecclesise sus- 
cipiat finem electio futuri pontificis. — Cone. 8. Con. 12. t. 3. Cone. p. 
282. 

90 Gregory Naz. Orat. 21. 



80 • THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

such a government, the apostles, under the guidance of wis- 
dom from on high, studiously sought to protect, in framing 
the constitution which they gave to the churches; as the fol- 
lowing remarks may serve to show. 

1. The right of suffrage is the first element of a popular 
government, in the church. 

The right to elect our rulers and teachers, presupposes the 
right to adopt our own form of government, to frame our 
constitution, to enact our laws, to exercise the prerogatives 
and enjoy the privileges of a free and independent body. 
The enjoyment of this right constitutes freedom ; the ab- 
sence of it, slavery. 

2. The right to elect their own pastors and teachers is the 
inherent right of every church. 

If it be true, that all men are endowed, by their Creator, 
with certain inalienable rights, among which are " life, liber- 
ty, and the pursuit of happiness," then much more is liberty 
of conscience, and the pursuit of future blessedness, the in- 
herent, inalienable right of man. What is the life that now 
is, to that which is to come ; or the happiness of earth, to 
the bliss of heaven? Such are the religious to the civil 
rights of any people, all of which are involved in the enjoy- 
ment of the elective franchise, and are lost to a disfranchised 
laity. This consideration was lately urged in the hearing of 
the writer, with great pertinency and force, by a speaker in 
the House of Lords, on a motion relating to the religious 
liberty of the church of Scotland. "The choice of a pas- 
tor," the noble Lord proceeded to say, " was really a measure 
of more importance, and, by the members of that church, 
was regarded as an event more interesting than the election 
of a member of Parliament ; for it affected their religious in- 
terests, — interests to them and to their children, high as hea- 
ven, and lasting as eternity." 



ELECTIONS BY THE CHURCH. 81 

3. The right of suffrage preserves a just balance of pow- 
er between the lay members of the church and the clerical 
order, — between the laity and the clergy. 

The sacred office of the clergy, coupled with learning and 
talents, gives them, under any form of government, a con- 
trolling influence. If to all this be added the exclusive right 
of making and executing the laws, and of electing the offi- 
cers, the balance of power between the clergy and the peo- 
ple is destroyed. The restraints and checks which the clergy 
ought to feel against the exercise of arbitrary power are re- 
moved. The history of the church sufficiently shows that 
the dangerous prerogatives of prelatical power cannot, with 
safety, be entrusted to any body of men, however great or 
good. Accordingly, as in all free governments, the sove- 
reign power is vested in the people, so in the primitive church, 
this great principle of religious as well as of civil liberty was 
carefully observed. The people were made the depositaries 
of the sovereign power. The enactment of the laws and the 
appointment of their officers belonged to them. 91 

4. The loss of this right brings with it the extinction 
of religious liberty. 

The free church of Scotland, by their late secession, have 
had the magnanimity to resign the heritage of their ances- 
tors, and go out from the sanctuary where their fathers 
worshipped, taking joyfully the spoiling of their goods, rather 
than submit to the loss of their religious rights. In the 
manifesto, which they have published, as their declaration 
of independence, they complain that their religious liberty 
has been invaded by the civil courts ; whereas the church 
of Christ is, and of right ought to be, free, and indepen- 
dent of all spiritual jurisdiction from the state. We subjoin 
an extract from this manifesto, which clearly sets forth the 

91 Riddle, Eccl. Chr. p. 13. Euseb. Eccl. Hist. Lib. 5. 24. 



82 



THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 



wrongs that they must suffer under this spiritual bondage 
to which they have nobly refused to bow down themselves : 

(a) " That the courts of the church as now established, and 
members thereof, are liable to be coerced by the civil courts 
in the exercise of their spiritual functions; and in particular 
in their admission to the office of the holy ministry, and the 
constitution of the pastoral relation, and that they are sub- 
ject to be compelled to intrude ministers on reclaiming con- 
gregations in opposition to the fundamental principles of the 
church, and their views of the word of God, and to the liber- 
ties of Christ's people. 

(b) " That the said civil courts have power to interfere 
with and interdict the preaching of the gospel, and adminis- 
tration of ordinances as authorized and enjoined by the 
church courts of the establishment. 

(c) " That the said civil courts have power to suspend spir- 
itual censures pronounced by the church courts of the estab- 
lishment against ministers and probationers of the church, 
and to interdict their execution as to spiritual effects, funo 
tions, and privileges. 

(d) " That the said civil courts have power to reduce and 
set aside the sentences of the church courts of the establish- 
ment, deposing ministers from the office of the holy ministry, 
and depriving probationers of their license to preach the gos- 
pel, with reference to the spiritual states, functions, and priv- 
ileges of such ministers and probationers, — restoring them 
to the spiritual office and status of which the church had de- 
prived them. 

(e) " That the said civil courts have power to determine on 
the right to sit as members of the supreme and other judica- 
tories of the church by law established, and to issue inter- 
dicts against sitting and voting therein, irrespective of the 
judgment and determination of the said judicatories. 

(/) " That the said civil courts have power to supersede 
the majority of a church court of the establishment, in regard 



ELECTIONS BY THE CHURCH. 83 

to the exercise of its spiritual functions as a church court, 
and to authorize the minority to exercise the said functions, 
in opposition to the court itself and to the superior judicato- 
ries of the establishment. 

(g) " That the said civil courts have power to stay proces- 
ses of discipline pending before courts of the church by law 
established, and to interdict such courts from proceeding 
therein. 

(7i) " That no pastor of a congregation can be admitted in- 
to the church courts of the establishment and allowed to rule 
as well as to teach, agreeably to the institution of the office 
by the Head of the church, nor to sit in any of the judicato- 
ries of the church, inferior or supreme, and that no addition- 
al provision can be made for the exercise of spiritual disci- 
pline among members of the church, though not affecting 
any patrimonial interests, and no alteration introduced in 
the state of pastoral superintendence and spiritual discipline 
in any parish without the coercion of a civil court. 

"All which jurisdiction and power on the part of the said 
civil courts severally above specified, whatever proceedings 
may have given occasion to its exercise, is, in our opinion, in 
itself inconsistent with Christian liberty, — with the authority 
which the Head of the church hath conferred on the church 
alone." 

5. The free exercise of the elective franchise is one of the 
most effectual means of guarding against the introduction of 
unworthy men into the ministry. 

The common people best know the private character of 
the minister. They have a deep interest in it. They seek 
the spiritual welfare of themselves and their children, in the 
selection of their pastor. These are precisely the considera- 
tions assigned for continuing to the people the right of elec- 
tion in the ancient church, after the rise of Episcopacy. 92 

92 It was, according to Cyprian, a divine tradition and apostolical 



84 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

On the contrary, he who has a living at his disposal, is often 
ignorant of the true character of him who seeks a preferment. 
A thousand sinister motives may bias his judgment. He 
may be the most unsuitable man possible for such a trust. 93 
In a word, who does not know that the curse of a graceless 
ministry has ever rested upon the church, to a greater or less 
extent, wherever they have not enjoyed the right of electing 
their own pastors ? The rich and quiet livings of an estab- 
lishment, especially if coupled with the authority, the dis- 
tinction and emoluments of the Episcopal office, will ever be 
an object of ambition to worldly men. " Make me a bishop," 
said an ancient idolater, " make me a bishop, and I will sure- 
ly be a Christian." 

6. The free enjoyment of the elective franchise, is one of 
the best means of guarding the church against the inroads of 
error. 

The Puseyism of the day is a delusion of the priesthood. 
The writer has often been assured in England that few, com- 
paratively, of the common people are led away by it. And 
in this country we have lately seen the laity nobly struggling 
to resist diocesan despotism. So it has ever been ; the delu- 
sions and heresies that have overrun the church, have origi- 

custom, observed by the African church, and throughout almost all 
the provinces, that the election is to be performed in the presence of 
the people of the place, who fully know every man's life, and in their 
very intimate acquaintance, have carefully observed his habitual con- 
versation. Episcopus deligatur, plebe praesente, qua? singulorum vi- 
tam plenissime novit, et uniuscujusque actum de ejus conversatione 
perspexerit . . . Coram omni synagoga jubet Dens constitui sacerdotem, 
id est, instruit atque ostendit ordinationes sacerdotales nonnisi, sub pop- 
uli assistentis conscientia fieri opportere ut, plebe pracscnte, vel dcte- 
gantur malorum crimina,vcl bonorum merita pracdicentnr, . . . Quod 
utique idciro tarn diligenter et caute, convocata plebe, tota gerebatur, 
ne quis ad altaris ministerium, vel ad sacerdotalem locum indignus 
oln perct — Cyprian, Ep. 68. 

92 Tracts for the Times, No. 59. p. 413. 



ELECTIONS BY THE CHURCH. 85 

nated with the clergy. 94 But in a ministry having no de- 
pendence upon the people, will be found, if any where, ir- 
religious and dangerous men, who, caring little for the real 
interests of their flocks, will substitute their own delusions 95 
for those simple truths which an intelligent and virtuous peo- 
ple delight to hear, and which a godly ministry would desire 
to preach. Leave then, the choice of the clergyman in the 
hands of the people. They will most carefully seek for one 
who is sound in the faith, and devoted to the sacred work ; 
they will soonest reject one who may seek to pervert the 
truth of God. Upon the laity alone can we rely to see to 
it that the church is furnished with ministers who shall 
be the best defenders of the faith, by the authority of their 
learning and the piety of their lives. . 

7. The right of suffrage promotes mutual attachment 
between pastor and people, and the spiritual edification of 
the church. 

94 " If you were to take the great mass of the peoph of England, 
you would find a burst of righteous indignation against them (the 
Tractarians). They would say, If we are to have popery, let us have 
honest old popery, at once. If you are right, you do not go far 
enough; and if you are wrong, you go too far" — Rev. Mr. Stowell, 
cited in Letters to the Laity, p. 34. 

95 « "When the prerogative and pre-eminence of any single person 
in the church began to be in esteem, not a few who failed in their at- 
tempts of attaining it, to revenge themselves on the church, made it 
their business to invent and propagate pernicious heresies. So did The- 
bulis, at Jerusalem, Euseb., lib. 4. cap. 22. and Valentinus, Tertul. ad 
Val., cap. 4. and Marcion, at Rome, Epiphan. Hosres, 42. Montanus 
fell into his dotage on the same account ; so did Novitianusat Rome, 
Euseb. lib. 7. cap. 43. and Arius, at Alexandria. Hence is that cen- 
sure of them by Lactantius, lib. 4. cap. 30. ' li quorum fides fuit lu- 
brica, cum Deum nosse se et colere simularent, augendis opibus et 
honori studentes, affectabant maximum sacerdotium, et a potioribus 
victi, secedere cum suffragatoribus maluerunt, quam eos ferre praeposi- 
tos quibus concupierant ipsi ante prreponi." — Owen, Works, Vol. XX. 
p. 169. 

8 



86 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

The people receive instruction, with affectionate interest 
and confidence, from the lips of the preacher whom they 
have appointed over themselves, from the man of their own 
choice ; while he, in turn, speaks to them in the fulness and 
confidence of reciprocal love. On the other hand, the min- 
istrations of a priesthood which is imposed upon a people, 
are felt to be a hireling service, in which neither speaker 
nor hearer can have equal interest. 

•r 

Finally. It produces the most efficient ministry. 

This is a general conclusion, drawn from the foregoing 
considerations, and a position established by the whole histo- 
ry of the church. It contradicts all history, and all the prin- 
ciples of human conduct, to suppose, that an independent Es- 
tablishment, in which the priesthood are settled down at ease 
in their livings, can have the vigorous efficiency and moral 
power of a clergy, the tenure of whose office depends upon 
their activity and usefulness. 



CHAPTER V. 

DISCIPLINE BY THE CHURCHES. 

The discipline of the apostolical churches was adminis- 
tered by each body of believers collectively ; and continued 
to be under their control until the third or fourth century. 
About this period the simple and efficient discipline of the 
primitive church was exchanged for a complicated and op- 
pressive system of penance administered by the clergy. But 
the church itself possesses the only legitimate authority for 
the administration of discipline. Its members form a vol- 
untary association. They have the right to enact their own 
laws, and to prescribe such conditions of membership with 
themselves, as they may judge expedient and agreeable to the 
word of God. The right to administer ecclesiastical disci- 
pline was guaranteed to the churches from their first organi- 
zation under the apostles ; but was finally lost by the usur- 
pation of the priesthood under the Episcopal hierarchy. 

I. The right to administer ecclesiastical discipline was 
originally vested in the church itself. 

The argument in support of this proposition is derived : 

1. From the Scriptures. 

2. From the early Fathers. 

3. From the authority of modern ecclesiastical writers. 

4. From the fact, that the entire government of the church 
was vested in that body itself. 



88 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

1. The argument from Scripture. 

Our Lord himself is generally supposed to teach, in Matt. 
18 : 15 — 18, that the public discipline of offenders should 
be administered by the authority of the church. 

These instructions are understood to have been given 
prospectively, and to contain the rules by which the disci- 
pline of the Christian church should be administered. But 
whether given prospectively, with reference to the Christian 
church which was about to be established, or designed to 
exhibit the proper mode of procedure in the discipline of 
the Jewish synagogue, they doubtless develope the "principle 
on which ecclesiastical censure should be conducted under the 
Christian dispensation. Vitringa has clearly shown that the 
directions of our Lord, in this instance, accord with the es- 
tablished usage of the synagogue, which, as we have already 
seen, was the pattern of the primitive church, both in its 
government and forms of worship. He has shown, fully, 
that this sentence was to be pronounced in accordance with 
a popular vote in public assembly ; and that the same course 
of procedure was to be the rule of the Christian church. 
The church therefore, like the synagogue, 1 is the ecclesias- 
tical court of impeachment for the trial of offences. If pri- 
vate remonstrance proves ineffectual, the case is to be brought 
before the church convened in public assembly ; to be ad- 
judged by a public vote of that body, after the manner of 
the Jewish synagogue. 

This rule of discipline was also established in the Chris- 
tian church by apostolical authority. 

We have on record one instance of a trial before the 
church which was instituted by the command of the apostle 
Paul, and conducted throughout agreeably to his instruc- 
tions. A Christian convert in Corinth, and a member of 

1 Vitringa, De Synagoga Vet. Lib. 3. p. 1. c. 9. Augusti, Denk- 
wttrdgkeiten, IX. S. 43. seq. PfafF, De Originibus Juris Eccles. 
p. 99. 



DISCIPLINE BY THE CHURCHES. 89 

the church which had recently been established in that city, 
had maintained an incestuous connexion with his father's 
wife. This shocking sin, unexampled even among the Gen- 
tiles, the apostle rebukes with righteous abhorrence. The 
transgressor ought to be put away from among them; and, 
uniting with them as if present in their assembly convened 
for the purpose, Paul resolves to deliver him unto Satan, in 
the name, and with the power of the Lord Jesus Christ, i. e., 
by the help and with the authority of the Lord, 1 Cor. 5 : 
3—5. 

Upon this passage we remark : 

(a) The decision was not an official act of the apostle, 
a sentence pronounced by his authority alone. It was the 
act of the church. Absent in body, but present in spirit 
with them when assembled together, the apostle pronounces 
his decision as if acting and co-operating with them. By 
this parenthetic sentence, " When ye are gathered together, 
and my spirit," he indicates the intervention and co-opera- 
tion of the church in the sentence pronounced upon the 
transgressor. " The apostle/' says De Wette, 2 " qualifies 
the earnestness with which he speaks in the third verse, by 
reference, first, to the authority of Christ, and secondly, to 
the co-operation of the church ; agreeably to the republican 
spirit of ancient Christianity, personating himself as present 
in spirit in their assembly." Such also is Neander's inter- 
pretation of the passage. " When the apostle speaks of 
an excommunication from the church, he regards himself as 
united in spirit with the whole church, 1 Cor. 5: 4, setting 
forth the rule, that their action is requisite in all such con- 
cerns of general interest. 3 " Even in this very chapter, he re- 
fuses to be himself the judge in such cases, submitting them to 
the church themselves. " What have I to do to judge them 

2 Comment, ad locum. 

3 Allgem. Gesch. I. S. 292. Comp. S. 350. Apost. Kirch, I. pp. 
319, 320. 

8* 



90 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

that are without V i. e., men of the world, " Do not ye judge 
them that are within?" i. e., members of the church. " But 
them that are without God judgeth," xqivei, or rather xoivai, 
will judge, which is the approved reading. " Therefore put 
away from among yourselves that wicked person" vs. 12, 13. 
The severe censure with which the apostle reflects upon 
the Corinthians for tolerating the offender so long, shows 
that the responsibility rested with them. They should have 
put away this offence from among them. 4 But if it was 
wholly the act of the apostle, why censure them for neglecting 
to do that which they had no right or authority to do? Are 
the members of the Episcopal church to be blamed for the 
general neglect of discipline in their communion, while the 
clergy have the sole power of administering that discipline? 
Neither could the Corinthians deserve censure, unless they 
had authority to administer the discipline which they had neg- 
lected. Both here, and in 2 Cor. 2: 3 — 11, the apostle re- 
fers distinctly to their neglect in this matter. 

Again, in 2 Cor. 2 : 6, he speaks of the excommunica- 
tion as the act of the church. The punishment was inflict- 
ed, vnb t($v TiXewvav, " of many/ 5 i. e., by the many, the 
majority. Bilroth paraphrases this in connection with the 
preceding verse, as follows : " Whether he, or the offen- 
der, have caused grief to me, comes not into consideration. 
It is not that / must suffer for him, but you ; at least, a part 
of you ; for I will not be unjust, and charge you all with 
having been indifferent concerning his transgressions. Paul 
proceeds still further, v. 6 ; he calls those who had reprehend- 
ed the transgressor, the majority, who had condemned his 
vice and been grieved by it." 

Once more, the apostle does not himself restore the trans- 
gressor, now penitent for his sin ; but exhorts the Corinthians 
to do it. But if the church had themselves the authority 

4 Mosheim, lnstitutiones Majores, P. II. c. 3. § 14. 



DISCIPLINE BY THE CHURCH. 91 

to receive him again to their communion, had they not also 
the right of censure? "The punishment which they had 
extended over him, by excluding him from their communion, 
is declared to be sufficient, since he had reformed himself, 
(on IxavoVf see Winer, p. 297). The apostle himself, there- 
fore, proposes, v. 7, that they should again treat him in a 
friendly manner, and comfort him, in order that he might 
not be worn away by over-much grief." 5 In v. 10, again, he 
signifies his readiness to assent to their decisions; whom 
they forgive, he forgives also, and because they had forgiven 
him. 

(b) This sentence was an actual excommunication ; not a 
judicial visitation analogous to that upon Simon Magus, Acts 
13: 11. By this sentence he was removed from the church 
of Christ, and reduced to his former condition as a heathen 
man. This, according to the most approved commentators, 
is the full meaning of the phrase, naqadovvai to) £azava. 
The world, in the angelology of the Jews, and agreeably to 
the Scriptures, comprises two great divisions ; the kingdom 
of Christ and the kingdom of Satan. By this sentence of 
excommunication, the incestuous person is transferred from 
the visible kingdom of our Lord, to the dominion of Satan, 
and in this sense delivered unto him. 

(c) The ultimate object of this discipline was the reforma- 
tion of the o fender ; the destruction of the flesh, that the 
spirit may be saved in the day of the Lord Jesus. It was not 
a penance, an arbitrary, prelatical infliction of pains and pen- 
alties, but a disciplinary process for the spiritual benefit of 
the individual. 

(d) It is questionable, perhaps, whether the sentence was 
accompanied with the judicial infiction of any disease what- 
ever. Many of the most respectable commentators under- 
stand, by the delivering " to Satan, for the destruction of the 
flesh" the visitation of some wasting malady. The phrase- 

6 Bilroth, Comment, ad locum. 



92 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

ology doubtless admits of such a construction, and the lan- 
guage of the apostle on other occasions seems to favor it. 
Com. 1 Cor. 11: 30. 1 Tim. 1: 20. But the consequences 
of this excommunication were of themselves sufficient, it 
may be, to justify this strong expression, the destruction of 
the flesh. To the Jews, under the old dispensation, and to 
primitive Christians under the new, the sentence of excom- 
munication was no light matter. It was a withering curse. 
It was a civil death. It involved a total exclusion from kin- 
dred, from society, from all those charities of life, which 
Christians were wont to reciprocate even with the heathen. 6 
This construction, again, is given to the passage by commen- 
tators of high authority. 

But is any bodily disease intended? Flesh, Gao%, often 
denotes the carnal propensities, the sinful appetites and pas- 
sions. Gal. 5: 17, 19. 6: 8. Eph. 2: 3. Col. 2: 11. The 
subjugation, the putting away of these, is distinctly implied 
in the ultimate design of this discipline, — the salvation of 
the spirit, — and is not this all that is intended in the 6Xe- 
&qov ttjg aaoxog, the destruction of the flesh 1 However 
that may be, it is not essential to our present purpose. 
Whatever may have been, to the guilty person, the conse- 
quences of the sentence of excommunication, that sentence 
proceeded from the church acting at the suggestion and with 
the advice of the apostle. 

An excommunication somewhat similar is described briefly 
in 1 Cor. 16: 22, — " If any man love not the Lord Jesus 
Christ, let him be anathema maran-atha." The word anath- 

6 Josephus relates, that those who were excommunicated from the 
Essenes often died after a miserable manner, and were therefore, from 
motives of compassion, received again when at the point of death. 
In this instance, the oath of the Essenes obliged them to refuse such 
food as the excommunicated person might find; but was not the case 
equally bad, when all were bound, not only to refuse him subsistence, 
but every expression of kindness and charity ? Comp. Jahn's Ar- 
chaology, § 528. Home's Introduction, B. II. c. 3. § 4. Neander, 
Allgem. Gesch. 1. 373, 2d edit. 



DISCIPLINE BY THE CHURCHES. 93 

ema corresponds to the Hebrew E"\ft, which denotes either 
anything given up to God, or devoted to destruction. It 
was a form of excommunication familiar to the Jews, which 
was pronounced publicly upon the offender, and excluded 
him from all communion whatever with his countrymen. 7 
Such was the anathema, a solemn sentence of excommunica- 
tion, publicly pronounced upon the transgressor. The phrase r 
Maran-atha, is the Syro-Chaldaic nntt &:'"!£, The Lord' 
cometh, i. e. to judgment. The whole, taken together, im- 
plies that the transgressor is separated from the communion 
of the church, and abandoned to the just judgment of God. 
All that the apostle seems to demand of the Corinthians re- 
specting the offender is, that they should exclude him from 
their society, so that he might cease to be a member of the 
church, verses 12, 13. He pronounces no further judg- 
ment upon him, but expressly refers to the future judgment 
of God. 

In review, therefore, of these important passages, several 
things are worthy of particular remark. 

(a) The sentence of exclusion proceeded not from the 
pastor of the church, but from the church collectively. 

(/3) The excommunication is styled a punishment, imti- 
[ua. But the apostle distinguishes it both from the civil 
penalties which attended the ban of excommunication among 
the Jews, and from the judicial sentence of God ; regarding 
the whole transaction as a ecclesiastical act, intended to 
express just abhorrence of the crime and merited censure 
of it. 

(y) The reason assigned for the restoration of the offender 
was repentance, — h[mr ( , — sorrow for his sin, to which the 
apostle probably refers in a subsequent passage, 7: 10, when 
he says, " Godly sorrow worketh repentance to salvation not 
to be repented of." 

7 Jahn's Archaology, § 258. Du Pin, De Antiqua Disciplina, 
Diss. 3. c.2. p. 272. 



94 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

(5) He was restored to the communion and fellowship of 
the church, as he had been excluded, by the public consent, 
the vote of that body. In accordance with these views, the 
apostle exhorts the Corinthians to separate from them any 
other immoral person, whether he be a fornicator, or cove- 
tous, or an idolater, or a railer, or a drunkard, or an extor- 
tioner. 1 Cor. 5: 11. And the Galatians he exhorts tore- 
store, in the spirit of meekness, one who may have been 
overtaken in fault. Now this right of judging and acting, 
both in the expulsion of the immoral and the restoration of 
the penitent, obviously vests in those who hold it, the power 
of ecclesiastical censure. 8 Comp. 2 Thess. 3: 14, and Rom. 
16: 17. 

It was, therefore, the privilege of the apostolical church to 
administer its own discipline by a free and public decision in 
its own body, a right which accords with every just principle 
of religious liberty, while it clearly illustrates the popular 
character of the primitive constitution of the church. For, 
as in their elections, so in their discipline, the apostolical 
churches were doubtless in harmony one with another, and 
may justly be presumed to have observed the same rules of 
fellowship. Based on the same principles, and governed by 
similar laws, one example may suffice to illustrate the policy 
of all.9 

2. Argument from the early fathers. 

Few passages, comparatively, occur in their writings re- 
lating immediately to the point under consideration. But 
enough can be derived from them to show that the church 

8 Rights of the Church, by Tindal, p. 39. 

9 On this whole subject, comp. Vitringa, De Synagoga, Lib. 3. p. 
1. c. 10. Pertsch, Kirch. Hist. I. 4to. S. 469 seq. Recht. Eccles. 
Kirchenbanns, Vorrede, Ausgab, 1738, 4. C. M. Pfaff, De Originibns 
Juris Eccl. pp. 10 — 13. Neander's Allgem. Gesch. S. 349 seq. 71, 
98, etc. 



DISCIPLINE BY THE CHURCHES. 95 

continued, for two or three centuries, to regulate her own 
discipline by the will of the majority, as expressed either 
by a direct popular vote, or through a representative delega- 
tion chosen by the people. 

Clemens Romanus, the only apostolical father belonging 
strictly to the first century, and contemporary with several 
of the apostles, throughout his epistle treats the church of 
Corinth as the only court of censure. He addresses his 
epistle, A. D. 68 or 98, not to the bishop, but to the entire 
body of believers. This circumstance is worthy of particu- 
lar notice, inasmuch as the epistle is written in relation to 
a case of discipline, and not to enforce the practical duties 
of religion. The church at Corinth was recognized as hav- 
ing authority in the case under consideration. The epistle 
of Polycarp, also, treating of the same general subject, is 
addressed to the church at Philippi, recognizing in the 
same manner the right of the church to take cognizance 
of offences. 

Clement, in his epistle, reflects severely upon the Corin- 
thians for their treatment of their religious teachers, some of 
whom they had rejected from the ministry. To do this with- 
out good reason, he assures them " would be no small sin" 
in them, 10 and earnestly exhorts them to exercise a charitable, 
orderly, and submissive spirit. But he offers no hint, that 
they had exceeded the limits of their legitimate authority, 
even in deposing some from the ministry ; on the contrary, 
he recognizes the right of the church to regulate, at their 
discretion, their own discipline, and the duty of all to ac- 
quiesce in it. " Who among you is generous ? who is com- 
passionate? who has any charity? Let him say whether this 
sedition, this contention, and these schisms be on my ac- 
count. I am ready to depart, — to go whithersoever you 
please, and to do whatsoever ye shall command me, only let 

10 Chauncey's Episcopacy, pp. 77, 78. 



96 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

the flock of Christ be in peace with the ministers that are 
set over thern." 11 

The above passage is twice quoted by Chancellor King, 
of the Episcopal church, in proof that the laity were mem- 
bers of the ecclesiastical court for the trial of offences, " and 
judges therein." 12 And Riddle, of the same communion, 
concurs with him in opinion. " Clement," says this author, 
"recommends those on whose account the dissensions had 
arisen, to retire and to submit to the will of the majority." 13 
These censures to which Clement urges them to submit, he 
characterizes as " the commands of the multitude, ta 7zqog- 
taooofieva vnb rov Tzlrj&ovg." 

The epistle of Polycarp to the Philippians, written, ac- 
cording to bishop Wake, A. D. 116 or 117, affords us, indi- 
rectly, a similar example of the deportment of the church 
towards a fallen brother. This venerable father was greatly 
afflicted at the defection of Valens, a presbyter of that church, 
who had fallen into some scandalous error. But he entreats 
the charitable consideration of the church towards the of- 
fender, urging them to exercise moderation towards him ; 
and on similar occasions to seek to reclaim the erring, and 
to call them back, in the spirit of kindness and Christian 
charity. 14 The address and exhortation, throughout, pro- 
ceed on the supposition, that the duty of mutual watchful- 
ness belongs to the brethren of the church collectively. It 
is not, however, a clear case of church discipline, though 
this may be implied. 

Next in succession is Tertullian. He has given, in his 
Apology for the Christians, an account of the constitution 
of their society or church, together with the nature and cir- 
cumstances of its religious worship and discipline. The 

11 El §td £ ( «£ ardatg nal I'qig xcd oy/afiara Ix'/ojqm, uttscuij ov lav 
PovXtjg&s, nal Troid) to, 7tQOOxaaa6fitva vrco zov nX^d'ovs. — Ep. ad 
Cor. c. 54- Comp. § 44. 

12 Primitive Church, B. I. c. 11. § 6, 7. § 2. 

13 Christian Antiquities, p. 9. 14 Comp. Ep. c. 11. 



DISCIPLINE BY THE CHURCHES. 97 

passage in question is, in several respects, one of the most 
important extant in the writings of the early fathers. Let 
us, however, confine our attention at present to that part of 
it which relates to their mode of administering ecclesiastical 
censure. This Apology was written, probably, about A. D: 
198 or 199, or, at the latest, in 205. " We, Christians,'" 
says Tertullian, " are one body by our agreement in reli- 
gion, and our unity of discipline, and bonds of hope, spei 
foedere, being animated with one and the same hope." He' 
then proceeds to describe their public worship as consisting 
in prayer and the reading of the Scriptures, and then adds, 
" Surely from the sacred oracles we strengthen our faith, we 
encourage our hope, we establish our trust [in God], and, by 
the divine precepts, press the duties of religion. Here, also, 
we exhort and reprove, and pass the divine censure, — [the 
sentence of excommunication]. For, the judgment is given 
with great solemnity, and as in the presence of God. And 
it is regarded as the most impressive emblem of the final 
judgment, when one has so sinned as to be banished from 
the prayers, the assemblies, and the holy communion of the 
church."^ 

We are a society, corpus sumus ; we are an associated' 
body, in which seems, of necessity, to be implied the idea of 
a voluntary, deliberative and popular assembly; — and the 
tenor of the entire passage, viewed in its connection, forci- 
bly impresses us with the conviction, that the " divine cen- 
sure" was inflicted by the united decision of that body. 

15 Corpus sumus de conscientia religionis et disciplinae unitate et 

spei foedere Certe fidem, Sanctis vocibus pascimus, spem eri- 

gimus, fiduciam figimus, disciplinam praeceptorum nihilominus in- 
culcationibus, densamus ; ibidem etiam exhortationes, castigationes, 
et censura divina. Nam et judicatur magno cum pondere, ut apud 
certos de Dei conspectu ; summumque futuri judicii praejudicium est, 
si quis ita deliquerit ut, a communicatione orationis et conventus et 
omnis sancti commercii relegetur. — Jlpol. 39. Comp. § 62, also J. H. 
Bohmer, Diss. 3. p. 151. 

9 



98 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

Certain approved elders, probati quique seniores, presided; 
but nothing is said to indicate that they even pronounced the 
sentence, as the officers of the church. How extraordinary 
the omission, then, if these elders had already, within the 
space of one hundred and fifty years, usurped the preroga- 
tives, and assumed the rights, which by divine authority were 
originally accorded to the church, — of regulating her own dis- 
cipline by her public deliberative assembly? Chancellor 
King, 16 and even the "great Du Pin," 17 though himself a 
Roman Catholic, both cite the above passage, as evidence 
that the discipline of the church continued to be administer- 
ed, as from the beginning it had been, by public vote of the 
church ; the clergy being understood to have a joint action 
and influence in their deliberations. 

On another occasion, Tertullian remarks, that the crimes 
of idolatry and of murder are of such enormity, that the 
charity of the churches is not extended to such as have been 
guilty of these offences. 18 

We come next to Cyprian, who was contemporary with 
Tertullian, and died about forty years later. In consider- 
ing the authority of Cyprian, let the reader bear in mind 
the following remarks of Riddle relative to this celebrated 
father. "In these writings of Cyprian, as well as in all his 
works, we are especially delighted with the sincere and prim- 
itive piety of the author ; while the chief subject of our re- 
gret and disapprobation are his mistaken views concerning 
the constitution of the church, and, especially, his assertion 
of undue power and prerogative on behalf of christian min- 
isters ; — of such influence and authority as the apostles nev- 
er sanctioned, and such as no pastors who have thoroughly 
imbibed the apostolic spirit would wish to exercise or to pos- 
sess." 19 But notwithstanding this " undue power and pre- 

16 Prim. Christ. P. I. c. VII. § 4. 

17 Du Pin's Antiqua Disciplina, Diss. 3. c. 1. 

18 Neque idololatriae, neque sanguini pax ab ecclesiis redditur. — 
De Pudicit. c. 12. 19 Christian Antiquities, p. 99. 



DISCIPLINE BY THE CHURCHES. 99 

rogative" which Cyprian ascribes to christian ministers, he 
uniformly recognizes, and most fully asserts, the right of the 
church to direct in the discipline of its members. About 
the year 250, the emperor Decius issued an edict command- 
ing the Christians to sacrifice to the gods. To escape the 
requisitions and penalties of this edict, Cyprian, then bishop 
of Carthage, was compelled to fly for his life, and continued in 
exile about sixteen months. But many of his church, under 
the relentless persecution that ensued, yielded an apparent 
compliance with the emperor's impious command. Others, 
without compliance, had the address to obtain a certain 
certificate from the prosecuting officer, which freed them 
from further molestation. All such persons, however, were 
denominated the lapsed, lapsi, and were excommunicated as 
apostates. The system of canonical penance, as it was call- 
ed, was so far established at this time, that this class of of- 
fenders were required to fulfil the forms of a prescribed and 
prolonged penance before they could be restored to the com- 
munion of the church. Many of the lapsed, however, touch- 
ed with a sense of their guilt, pleaded for an abatement of the 
rigor of these austerities, and an earlier and easier return to 
the communion of the church. To this course a party in 
the church, were, for various reasons, strongly inclined ; and 
some were actually restored in the absence of the bishop. 
This irregularity was severely censured by Cyprian, who, 
however, in his epistles and writings relative to the case of 
the lapsed, often recognizes the right of the people to be a 
party in the deliberations and decisions respecting them. 
The clergy who had favored this abuse, he says, " shall give 
an account of what they have done, to me, to the confessors, 20 
and to the whole church." 21 

20 " It was the privilege of the confessors, that is, of persons who 
had suffered torture, or received sentence of death, to give to any of 
the lapsed a written paper, termed a letter of peace ; and the bearer 
was entitled to a remission of some part of the ecclesiastical disci- 
pline." — Burton's History of the Church, Chap. 15. 

21 Acturi et apud nos et apud confessores ipsos et apud plebem 



100 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

Again he says, in a letter addressed to the church, " When 
the Lord shall have restored peace unto us all, and we shall 
all have returned to the church again, we shall then examine 
all these things, you also being present and judging of them." 
In the conclusion of the same epistle he adds, " I desire then 
that they would patiently hear our counsel and wait for our 
return, that then, when many of us, bishops, shall have met 
together, we may examine the certificates and desires of the 
blessed martyrs, according to the discipline of the Lord, in 
the presence of the confessors, and according to your will." 22 

Again, in his epistle to his people at Carthage, in which 
he laments the schism of Felicissimus, he assures them that 
on his return, he with his colleagues will dispose of the case 
agreeably to the will of his people, and the mutual council of 
both clergy and people. 23 The two offended sub-deacons 
and acolyths, he declares, shall be tried, not only in the pre- 
sence of his colleagues, but before the whole peopled The 
above and other similar passages are often cited in evidence 
of the agency which the people still continued, in the middle 
of the third century, to exert in the administration of eccle- 
siastical censure. 25 Will any one presume to say, that in re- 

universam causam suam, cum Domino permittente, in sinum matris 
ecclesiae recolligi coeperimus. — Ep. 10. al. 9. 

22 Cum, pace nobis omnibus a Domino prius data, ad ecclesiam re- 
gredi coeperimus, tunc examinabuntur singula, praescntibus et judi- 
cantibus vobis. — Audiant quaeso, patientur consilium nostrum, ex- 
pectent regressionem nostram ; ut cum ad vos, per Dei misericordiam 
yenerimus, convocati episcopi plures secundum Domini disciplinam, 
et confessorum, praesentiam et vestram quoque sententiam martyrum 
litteras et desideria examinare possimus. — Ep. 12. al. 11. 

23 Cum collegis meis, quibus praesentibus, secundum arbitrium 
quoque vestrum et omnium nostrum commune consilium, sicut se- 
mel placuit ea quae agenda sunt, disponere pariter et limare poteri- 
mus. — Ep. 40. 

24 Non tantum cum collegis meis, sed cum plebe ipsa universa. — 
Ep. 34. Crimina — publice a nobis et plebe cognoscerentur. — Ep. 44. 

25 Comp. Daille, Right Use of the Fathers, B. 2. c. 6. pp. 328—330. 



DISCIPLINE BY THE CHURCHES. 101 

fusing to decide upon any case, or to exercise any authority, 
Clement only condescends kindly to regard the will of the 
people, without acknowledging their right to be consulted ? 
We ask in reply, Is this the language and spirit of prelacy ? 
Could a modern diocesan so speak, and perform all his duties 
with such scrupulous regard to the will of his people, with- 
out exciting in their minds the idea of that religious liberty, 
which, from the beginning, the church was accustomed to 
enjoy, and which it was so much encouraged to exercise ? 
Under such instructions as those of Clement, it could have 
learned but slowly the doctrine of passive obedience. 

Enough has been said to illustrate, at least, the usage of 
the church at Carthage. Between this church and that at 
Rome, under Cornelius, there was, at this time, the greatest 
harmony of sentiment in relation to the discipline of the 
church. And, from the correspondence between the 
churches, which is recorded in the works of Cyprian, there 
is conclusive evidence that their polity was the same. This 
is so clearly asserted by Du Pin, that I shall dismiss this 
point after citing his authority. After making the extract 
from Tertullian, which has been given above, and others 
from Cyprian, similar to those which have already been cited, 
he adds, " From whence it is plain, that both in Rome and 
at Carthage, no one could be expelled from the church, or 
restored again, except with the consent of the people." 
This, according to the same author, was in conformity with 
apostolical precedent in the case of the incestuous person at 
Corinth.26 

Origen, again, of Caesarea in Palestine, speaks of the 
conviction of an offender before the whole church, km na- 
orjg rijs ixxtyaiag, as the customary mode of trial. 27 With 

26 De Antiqua Disciplina, Diss. 3. pp. 248, 249. 

27 Ugog St to Soitovv gxXtjqov iroog roiig rd tldxrova y/uaQTyxoraQ, 
hitoi rig av oxi ovx hl-eoTi Sig t^ijg fj,y axovoavra, to tqitov dxovaac 
ws did tovto fiTjaixi tlvai w>g i&vixov xal t6?mvt]V, ij fitjutri Sey&TJpai 

9* 



102 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

the authority of Origen we may join that of Chrysostom at 
Constantinople. In commenting upon 1 Cor. 5: 3 — 5, he 
represents the complaint of the apostle to be that the Corin- 
thians had not put away that wicked person from among 
them ; " showing that this ought to be done without their 
teacher "& and that the apostle associates them with himself, 
"" that his own authority might not seem to be too great" in 
the transaction. Theodoret also expresses much the same 
sentiments upon the passage under consideration. 29 

These authorities are derived both from the Eastern and 
the Western church. As ancient expositions of the apostol- 
ical rule, and as examples of the usage of the churches in 
the ages immediately succeeding that of the apostles, they 
indicate that throughout this period ecclesiastical discipline 
was administered in accordance with the will of the people, 
and by their decision. The bishop and clergy, instead of 
holding in their own grasp the keys of the kingdom of heav- 
en, co-operated with the church in its deliberations ; and acted 
as the official organ of the assembly in executing its deci- 
sions. Neither was the ban of the church wielded in terror, 
as it has often been by an arbitrary priesthood to accomplish 
their own sinister ends. 

The penitent was restored, also, in the spirit of kind- 
ness and christian forgiveness, by the joint consent of the 
same body which had originally excluded him from its com- 
munion. 

This point deserves distinct consideration, as another in- 

tovlnX Ttdotj? rrjg ixxfajoiag.. — Comment, in Matt., Tom. 13. p. 612. 
Com. p. 613. 

28 Jemvvg otl Ss yojQiq tov didaaxdXov to ysvtad'at I'Ssi 'iva/uij So^rj 
izoXXfi bit rj av&tVTla. 

Horn. 15. ad 1 Cor., Tom. 10. p. 126. 

29 Theodoret, Comment, ad locum, Opera, Tom. 3. p. 141. Comp. 
Blondell, De jure plebis in regimine ecclesiastico, where many other 
authorities are given. 



DISCIPLINE BY THE CHU&CHES. 103 

dication of the religious liberty enjoyed by the church. Paul 
submitted to the church at Corinth the restoration of the 
offender whom they had excluded from their communion. 
Tertullian makes it the duty of the penitent to cast himself 
at the feet of the clergy, and kneeling at the altar of God, 
to seek the pardon and intercessions of all the brethren?® 
Cyprian in the passage cited above, declares, that the lapsed 
who had been excluded from the church, must make their 
defence before all the people, apud plebem universam. "It 
was ordained by an African synod, in the third century, 
that, except in danger of death, or of a sudden persecu- 
tion, none should be received unto the peace of the church, 
without the knowledge and consent of the people." 31 Natalis, 
at Rome, in the first part of the third century, threw him- 
self at the feet of the clergy and laity, and so bewailed his 
faults, that the church was moved with compassion for him> 
and with much difficulty he was received into its commu- 
nion. 32 The same is related of one of the bishops, who 
was restored to the church at Rome, under Cornelius, to 
lay communion, " through the mediation of all the people 
then present." 33 Serapion, at Antioch, was also refused ad- 
mission to that church, no one giving attention to him. 34 
At Rome, then, in Africa, in Asia, and universally, the pen- 
itent was restored to Christian communion, by the authority 
of the church from which he had been expelled. 

If it were necessary to adduce further evidence in vindi- 
cation of the right of the people to administer the discipline 
of the .[church, it might be drawn from the acknowledged 
fact, that the people, down to the third or fourth century, 

30 Presbyteris advolvi, et caris Dei adgeniculari omnibus fratribus 
legationes deprecationis suae injungere. — De Poenitentia, c. 9. 

31 Cyprian, Epist. 59. The same fact is also asserted by Du Pin, 
in the passage quoted above. 

32 Euseb. Eccl. Hist. Lib. 5. c. 28. 

33 Euseb. Eccl. Hist. Lib. 6. c. 43, 

34 Euseb. Eccl. Hist. Lib. 6. c. 44. 



104 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

retained, and not unfrequently exercised, the right even of 
deposing from the ministry. The controversy of the people 
of Corinth with their pastors, as indicated in the epistle of 
Clement, has been already mentioned ; and the case of Va- 
lens deposed from the ministry by the church at Philippi. 
To these may be added the instances of Martialis and Basi- 
lides, bishops of Leon and Astorga in Spain, who were de- 
posed by their people for idolatry. From this sentence of 
the people they appealed to several bishops in Africa. 
These, after hearing the case in common council, A. D. 258, 
affirmed the act of the people. The result of their delibe- 
rations was communicated by Cyprian, from which decision 
the extract below is taken, in which he fully accords to the 
people the right both to choose the worthy and depose the 
unworthy : eligendi dignos sacerdotes et indignos recusandi. 
''Many other such like passages," says King, " are found in 
that Synodical Epistle, which flatly asserts the people's pow- 
er to depose a wicked and scandalous bishop," 35 and with 
him Bingham substantially agrees. 36 And again, by Dr. 
Barrow, of the Episcopal church : " In reason, the nature 
of any spiritual office consisting in instruction in truth, and 
guidance in virtue toward the attainment of salvation, if any 
man doth lead into pernicious error or impiety, he thereby 
ceaseth to be capable of such office; as a blind man, by be- 
ing so, doth cease to be a guide. No man can be bound to 
follow any one into the ditch, or to obey any one in prejudice 

35 Prim. Chris. P. 1. c. 6. The following passage is an example of 
such an assertion. Inde per temporum et successionum vices epis- 
coporum ordinatio et ecclesiae ratio decurrit ut ecclesia super episco- 
pos constituater et omnis actus ecclesiae per eosdem praepositos gu- 
bernetur. Cum hoc itaque lege divina fundatum sit, miror quosdam, 
audaci temeritate, sic mihi scribere voluisse ut ecclesiae nomine lite- 
ras facerent, quando ecclesia in episcopo et clero et in omnibus stan- 
tibus [i. e. who had apostatized] sit constituta. — Ep. 33. al. 27. 

36 Book. 16. c. 1. Comp. Neander, Allgem. Kirch. Gesch. 11. 
S. 341. 



DISCIPLINE BY THE CHURCHES. 105 

to his own salvation. If any pastor should teach bad doc- 
trine, or prescribe bad practice, his people may reject and 
disobey him." 37 

From these censures of a popular assembly an appeal 
would be made, as in the case before us, to a synodical coun- 
cil, or to the neighboring bishops. For this reason, they 
are sometimes represented as the ecclesiastical court for the 
trial of the clergy. Such they were at a subsequent period ; 
but in the primitive church it was, as appears from the fore- 
going authorities, the right of the church to exercise her dis- 
cipline over both laity and clergy. The greater includes 
the less. The right to depose a scandalous bishop, of neces- 
sity supposes the right to expel from their communion an 
unworthy member of humbler rank. The conclusion is ir- 
resistible, that, as in the highest act of ecclesiastical censure, 
so in smaller offences, the discipline of the church was con- 
ducted with the strictest regard to the rights and privileges 
of its members. 

3. Argument from the authority of modern ecclesiastical 
writers. 

Authority is not argument. But the opinion of those who 
have made ecclesiastical history the study of their lives, is 
worthy of our regard. The concurring opinion of many 
such becomes a valid reason for our belief. What then is 
their authority? 

Valesius, the learned commentator on Eusebius, says that 
" the people's suffrages were required when any one was to 
be received into the church, who for any fault had been ex- 
communicated." 38 This is said in relation to the usage of 
the church in the third century. 

The authority of Du Pin, the distinguished historian of 

37 Barrow's Works, Vol. I. p. 744. Comp. also, Pertsch, Kirch. 
Hist. I. S. 370. Mosheim, Can. Recht, p. 60. 

38 Eccl, Hist. Lib. 6. 44. Cora. Lib. 5. 28. 




106 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

the Roman Catholic communion, whose opinion upon this 
point is worthy of all confidence, is to the same effect ; that 
the discipline of the church continued, in the third century, 
to be administered by the church as it had been from the 
beginning. 39 

Simonis, profoundly learned on all points relating to ec- 
clesiastical usage, says that, " this church discipline was so 
administered that not only the clergy, especially the bishops, 
and in important cases a council of them, but also the churchy 
in every case, gave their decision and approbation, in order 
that nothing might be done through prejudice and private 
interest by being submitted to the clergy and bishops alone." 40 

Baumgarten ascribes to the church alone the entire con- 
trol of ecclesiastical censures, from the earliest periods of its 
history down to the time of Cyprian, when he supposes each 
case to have been first adjudicated by the church, and after- 
wards by the clergy and bishop. 41 

Mosheim is full and explicit upon the same point. He 
not only ascribes to the church the power of enacting their 
own laws and choosing their own officers, but of excluding 
and receiving such as were the subjects of discipline, malos 
et degeneros et excludendi et recipiendi, and adds that nothing 
of any moment was transacted or decided without their 
knowledge and consent. 42 

Planck asserts that, so late as the middle of the third cen- 
tury, the members of the church still exercised their origi- 
nal right of controlling the proceedings of the church, both 
in the exclusion of offenders, and in the restitution of peni- 
tents. 43 

39 Antiqua Disciplina, Diss. 3. c. 1. 

40 Vorlesungen (iber Christ. Alterthum. S. 426. 

41 Erlauterungen, Christ. Alterthum. § 122. Comp. also § 36, and 
S. 85. 

42 De Rebus Christ., Saec. Prim. § 45. 

43 Gesell. Verfass. 1. S. 180, 508. Comp. S. 129—140, and 
Fuchs, Bibliothek, 1. S. 43 seq. 



DISCIPLINE BY THE CHURCHES. 107 

Guerike also states, that, in the third century, the duty of 
excluding from the church and of restoring to her commu- 
nion, still devolved upon the laity. 44 

The views of Neander are sufficiently apparent from quo- 
tations which have already been made in the progress of this 
work. More thoroughly conversant with the writings of the 
fathers, and more profoundly skilled in the government and 
history of the church than any other man living, he not only 
ascribes the discipline of offenders originally to the delibera- 
tion and action of the church, but states, moreover, that the 
right of controlling this discipline was retained by the laity 
in the middle of the third century, after the rise of the Epis- 
copal power, and the consequent change in the government 
of the church. " The participation of the laity in the con- 
cerns of the church was not yet altogether excluded. One 
of these concerns was the restoration of the lapsed to the 
communion of the church. The examination which was in- 
stituted in connection with this restoration was also held be- 
fore the whole church." 45 

These authorities might be extended almost indefinitely ; 
but enough have been cited to show that, in the opinion of 
those who are most competent to decide, the sacred right of 
directing the discipline of the church was, from the begin- 
ning, exercised by the whole body of believers belonging to 
the community; and that they continued, in the third centu- 
ry, to exercise the same prerogative. 

4. Argument from the fact, that the entire government of 
the church was under the control of its members. 

Government by the people, characterized the whole eccle- 
siastical polity of the primitive church. The members of 
the church, unitedly, enacted their own laws, elected their 
own officers, established their own judicature, and managed 

44 Kirch. Gesch. S. 94, 100, 101, 2d edit. 

45 Allgem. Kirch. Gesch. 1. S. 342, 2d edit. 



108 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

all their affairs by their mutual suffrages. " With them resid- 
ed the power of enacting laws, as also of adopting or reject- 
ing whatever might be proposed in the general assemblies, 
and of expelling and again receiving into communion any 
depraved or unworthy members. In a word, nothing what- 
ever, of any moment, could be determined on, or carried into 
effect, without their knowledge and concurrence." 46 

On this point, again, we must be permitted to adduce the 
authority of Neander. After showing at length, that, agree- 
ably to the spirit of the primitive church, all were regarded 
as different organs and members of one body, and actuated 
by one and the same spirit, he adds : " But from the nature 
of the religious life and of the Christian church, it is hardly 
possible to draw the inference naturally that the government 
should have been entrusted to the hands of a single individ- 
ual. The monarchical form of government accords not with 
the spirit of the Christian church." 41 

Riddle gives the following sketch of the constitution and 
government of the church as it existed at the close of the 
first and at the beginning of the second century. " The sub- 
ordinate government, etc., of each particular church was 
vested in itself; that is to say, the whole body elected its 
minister and officers, and was consulted concerning all mat- 
ters of importance." 48 

Even the " judicious" Hooker, the great expounder of the 
ecclesiastical polity of the Episcopal church, distinctly de- 
clares, that, "the general consent of all" is requisite for the 
ratification of the laws of the church. " Laws could they 
never be, without the consent of the whole church to be guid- 
ed by them ; whereunto both nature, and the practice of the 
church of God set down in the Scripture, is found so conso- 
nant, that God himself would not impose his own laws upon 

46 Mosheim, De Rebus Christ , Saec. 1. § 45. 

47 Allgem. Gesch. 1. S. 312. 2d edit. 49 Chronology, p. 13. 



DISCIPLINE BY THE CHURCHES. 109 

his people by the hands of Moses without their free and open 
consent." 49 

From all this, in connection with what has already 
been said in the former part of this work, the popular ad- 
ministration of the government is sufficiently manifest. Even 
the minute concerns of the church were submitted to the 
direction of the popular voice. Is a delegate to be sent out? 
He goes, not as the servant of the bishop, but as the repre- 
sentative of the church, chosen to this service by public 
vote. 50 Is a letter missive to be issued from one church to 
another ? It is done in the name of the church ; and, when 
received, is publicly read. 51 In short, nothing is done with- 
out the consent of the church. Even Cyprian, the great ad- 
vocate for Episcopal authority in the middle of the third cen- 
tury, protests to his clergy, that, " from his first coming to 
his bishopric, he had ever resolved to do nothing according 
to his own private will, without the advice of the clergy and 
the approbation of the people." 52 

The point now under consideration is very clearly pre- 
sented by an old English writer, of Cambridge in England, 
whose work on Primitive Episcopacy evinces such a familiar 
acquaintance with the early history of the church as entitles 
his conclusions to great respect. "In the apostles' times, 
and divers ages after, all the people, under the inspection of 

49 Ecclesiastical Polity, B. Vlll. 50 Ignatius, ad. Phil. c. 10. 

51 The letters of Clement and Polycarp were written by the au- 
thority of the respective churches. Comp. Euseb. Eccl. Hist. 4. 
c. 15. 5. c. 1, and c. 24. With the epistle of Clement, five dele- 
gates were sent also from the church at Rome, to that at Corinth, to 
attempt to reconcile the dissensions in the latter church. § 59. 

52 Ad id vero quod scripserunt mihi compresbyteri nostri, Donatua 
et Fortunatus, Novatus et Gordius, solus rescribere nihil potui ; quan- 
do a primordio episco.patus mei statuerim nihil sine consilio vestro, et 
sine consensu plebis meae privatim sententia gerere ; sed cum ad vos 
per Dei gratiam venero, tunc de eis quae vel gesta sunt, vel gerenda 
sicut honor mutuus poscit in commune tractabimus. — Cyprian, Ep. 5. 
Comp. Ep. 3. 55. Dailie en the Fathers, p. 330. London. 

10 



1 10 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

one bishop, were wont to meet together, net only for wor- 
ship, but for other administrations. AH public acts passed 
at assemblies of the whole people. They were consulted 
with, their concurrence was thought necessary, and their 
presence required, that nothing might pass without their cog- 
nizance, satisfaction and consent. This was observed, not 
only in elections of officers, but in ordinations and censures, 
in admission of members and reconciling penitents, and in 
debates and consultations about other emergencies. There 
is such evidence of this, particularly in Cyprian, almost in 
every one of his epistles, that it is acknowledged by modern 
writers of all sorts, such as are most learned and best ac- 
quainted with antiquity." 53 

If then the sanction of the church was sought in the mi- 
nutest matters, surely transactions of such solemnity as those 
of expelling the guilty, and of restoring the penitent must 
have been submitted to their direction. Was a christian salu- 
tation to a sister church communicated by public authority, 
commending, it may be, a faithful brother to communion 
and fellowship, and had they no voice in rejecting a fallen 
and reprobate member from their own communion? Was 
the sanction of the whole body requisite before one from 
another church could be received to their communion, and 
had they no voice in restoring the penitent who returned con- 
fessing his sins and entreating the enjoyment of the same 
privileges ? 

All this fully accords with the usage of the apostolical 
churches, and is evidently a continuation of the same policy. 
Whether deacons are to be appointed, or an apostle or pres- 
byters chosen, it is done by vote of the church. A case for 
discipline occurs; it is submitted to the church. A dissen- 
sion arises, Acts 15; this also is referred to the church. 

53 Clarkson's Primitive Episcopacy, pp. 171, 172. The authority 
of the Magdeburg Centuriators is also to the same effect. Comp Chap. 
7. Cent. II. and III. 



DISCIPLINE BY THE CHURCHES. Ill 

The decision is made up as seemeth good to the whole church. 
The result is communicated by the apostles, the elders, and 
the brethren jointly. The brethren of the church have a 
part in all ecclesiastical concerns ; nothing is transacted 
without their approbation and consent. The sovereign pow- 
er is vested in the people. They are constituted by the 
apostles themselves the guardians of the church, holding in 
their hands the keys of the kingdom, to open and to shut, 
to bind and to loose at their discretion. So the apostles and 
primitive fathers evidently understood and administered the 
government of the church. Neither Peter, nor any apostle, 
nor bishop, nor presbyter, but each and every disciple of 
Christ, is the rock on which he would build his church. 
Such is Origen's interpretation of the passage in Matt. 16: 
18. " Every disciple of Christ is that rock, and upon all 
such the whole doctrine of the church, and of its correspon- 
ding polity is built. If you suppose it to be built upon Peter 
alone, what say you of John, that son of thunder; and of 
each of the apostles ? Will you presume to say, that the gates 
of hell will prevail against the other apostles, and against all 
the saints, but not against Peter ? Rather is not this, and 
that other declaration, ' On this rock I will build my church,' 
applicable to each and every one alike ?" 54 

Such are the arguments which we offer in defence of the 
proposition, that any body of believers, associated together 
for the enjoyment of religious rights and privileges, was also 
originally an ecclesiastical court, for the trial of offences. 55 
This is asserted by the great Du Pin, of the Roman Catho- 
lic church. It is admitted by respectable authorities, King, 
Cave, Riddle, etc., of the Episcopal church. It is generally 

^ Comment, in Matt. Tom. 3. p. 524. 

55 It was a doctrine of Tertullian, that where three are assembled 
together in the name of Christ, there they constitute a church, though 
only belonging to the laity. Three were sufficient for this purpose. 
Ubi tres, ecclesia est, licet laici. — Exhort, ad Castitat. c. 7. 522. De 
Fuga, c. 14. 



112 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

acknowledged by Protestants of other religious denomina- 
tions. It is implied or asserted in various passages from the 
early fathers. They speak of it, not as a controverted point, 
but as an admitted principle. The sanction of the mem- 
bers of the primitive church was sought in all the less im- 
portant concerns of the church. They controlled also, the 
highest acts of ecclesiastical censure, and frequently exer- 
cised their right of deposing those of their own pastors and 
bishops who proved themselves unworthy of the sacred office. 
And, finally, the church was from the beginning authorized 
and instructed by the apostle Paul, to administer discipline 
to an offending member. With the approbation of the great 
apostle, they pronounced upon the transgressor the sentence 
of excommunication, and again, on receiving satisfactory ev- 
idence of penitence, restored him to their communion and 
fellowship. 

With the question of expediency, in all this, we have now 
no concern. If any prefer the Episcopal system of church 
government to one more free and popular, we shall not here 
dispute their right to submit themselves to the control of the 
diocesan. But when they go on to assert that the exercise 
of such authority belongs to him by the divine right of Epis- 
copacy, we rest assured that they have begun to teach for 
doctrine the commandments of men. From the beginning 
it was not so. " Full well ye reject the commandment of 
God, that ye may keep your own tradition." 



MODE OF ADMISSION. 

This was at first extremely simple ; consisting only in the 
profession of faith in Christ, and baptism. The churches, 
however, at an early period, learned the necessity of exercis- 
ing greater caution in receiving men into their communion. 
Taught by their own bitter experience, they began to require, 
in the candidate for admission to their communion, a compe- 



DISCIPLINE BY THE CHURCHES. 113 

tent acquaintance with religious truth, and a trial of his 
character for a considerable space of time. From undue 
laxness, they passed into the opposite extreme of excessive 
rigor, in prescribing rules and qualifications for communion. 
These austerities gave rise to the order of catechumens to- 
ward the close of the second century, and to a long train of 
formalities preliminary to a union with the church. 

In immediate connection with these tites, and as a part of 
the same discipline, began the system of penance in the 
treatment of the lapsed — persons who had incurred the cen- 
sure of the church. By this system, their return to the church 
was rendered even more difficult than had been their origi- 
nal entrance. The system was rapidly developed. In the 
course of the third century it was brought into full operation, 
while the people still retained much influence over the penal 
inflictions of the church upon transgressors. 56 But it is not 
our purpose to treat upon this subject. The system is de- 
tailed at length in the author's Antiquities of the Christian 
Church, Chap. XVII, to which the reader is referred for in- 
formation in relation to the offences which were the subject 
of discipline, the penalties inflicted, and the manner of re- 
storing penitents. 

The entire regimen, however, passed, in process of time, 
from the hands of the people into those of the clergy, espe- 
cially of the bishops. It was lost in the general extinction 
of the rights and privileges of the church, and the overthrow 
of its primitive apostolical constitution ; upon the ruins of 
which was reared the Episcopal hierarchy, first in the form 
of an " ambitious oligarchy," as Riddle very justly denomi- 
nates it, and then, of a tyrannical despotism. 

II. Usurpation of discipline by the priesthood. 

In the fourth century, the clergy by a discipline peculiar 

56 Flanck, Gesellschafts-Verfass. 1. S. 129—140. Fuchs, Biblio- 
thek, 1. S. 43, 44, 45—50, 403. 
10* 



114 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

to themselves, and applicable only to persons belonging to 
their order, found means of relieving themselves from the 
penalties of the protracted penance which was exacted of 
those who fell under the censure of the church. Suspension 
and the lesser excommunication or degradation, and the like, 
were substituted as the penalties of the clergy, instead of 
the rigorous penance of the laity. And though in some re- 
spects it was claimed, that the discipline of the clergy was 
more severe than that of the laity, the practical effect of this 
discrimination, which was gradually introduced, was to sep- 
arate the clergy from the laity, and to bring the latter more 
completely under the power of the priesthood. 57 It was at 
once the occasion of intolerance in the one, and of oppres- 
sion to the other. 

The confederation of the churches in synods and coun- 
cils had also much influence in producing the same result. 
In these conventions, laws and regulations were enacted for 
the government and discipline of the churches of the pro- 
vince. And though the churches, severally, still retained 
the right of regulating their own polity, as circumstances 
might require, they seldom claimed the exercise of their 
prerogative. The result was, that the law-making power 
was transferred, in a great degree, from the people to the pro- 
vincial synods, where again the authority of the people was 
lost in the overpowering influence of bishops and clergy. 
These claimed at first only to act as the representatives of 
their respective churches, by authority delegated to them by 
their constituents. 58 But they soon assumed a loftier tone. 

57 Planck, Gesellschafts-Verfass. 1. S. 342—346. Comp. c. 8. S. 
125—141. 

58 TertuUian describes such assemblies as bodies representative of 
the whole Christian church. ipsa repraesentatio totius nominis 
Christian!. — De Jejun. c. 13. p. 552. 

In the infancy, indeed, of councils, the bishops did not scruple to 
acknowledge that they appeared there merely as the ministers or le- 
gates of their respective churches, and that they were, in fact, no- 



DISCIPLINE BY THE CHURCHES. 115 

Claiming for themselves the guidance of the Spirit of God, 
they professed to speak and act according to the teachings of 
this divine agent. Their decisions, therefore, instead of be- 
ing the judgment of ignorant and erring men, were the dic- 
tates of unerring wisdom. And the people, in exchange for 
the government which they had been accustomed to exercise 
for themselves, were kindly provided with an administration 
which claimed to be directed by wisdom from above. 59 
Taught thus and disciplined in that great lesson of bigotry 
and spiritual despotism, — passive submission to persons or- 
dained of God for the good of the church, — they were pre- 
pared to resign their original rights and privileges into the 
hands of the hierarchy. 

There is the fullest evidence that the action of the laity 
was requisite, as late as the middle of the third century, in 
all disciplinary proceedings of the church. By the begin- 
ning of the fourth, however, this cardinal right, through the 
operation of causes, which have been briefly mentioned and 
which may be more fully specified hereafter, was greatly 
abridged ; and soon after, it was wholly lost. This fact strong- 
ly illustrates the progress of the Episcopal hierarchy. While 
the right of the laity was yet undisputed, the power of the 
bishop began at first to be partially asserted, and occasion- 
ally admitted ; the people occupying a neutral position be- 
tween submission and open hostility. But, from disuse to 
denial, and from denial to the extinction of neglected privi- 

thing more than representatives acting from instructions;, but it was 
not long before this humble language began, by little and little, to be 
exchanged for a loftier tone. They at length took upon themselves 
to assert that they were the legitimate successors of the apostles 
themselves, and might, consequently, of their own proper authority, 
dictate laws to the christian flock. To what extent the inconveni- 
ences and evils arising out of these preposterous pretensions reached 
in after times, is too well known to require any particular notice in 
this place. — Mosheim, De Rebus Christ., Saec. II. § 23. 
59 Planck, Gesellschafts-Verfass. 1. S. 448—452. 



116 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

leges and powers, the descent is natural, short and rapid. 
From about the middle of the fourth century, accordingly, 
the bishops assumed the control of the whole penal jurisdic- 
tion of the laity, opening and shutting at pleasure the doors 
of the church, inflicting sentence of excommunication, and 
prescribing, at their discretion, the austerities of penance ; 
and again absolving the penitents, and restoring them to the 
church by their own arbitrary power. 60 The people, ac- 
cordingly, no longer having any part in the trial of offences, 
ceased to watch for the purity of the church, connived at 
offences, and concealed the offender , not caring to interfere 
with the prerogatives of the bishop, in which they had no 
further interest. The speedy and sad corruption of the 
church was but the natural consequence of this loose and 
arbitrary discipline. It was one efficient cause of that de- 
generacy which succeeded. 

The ecclesiastical discipline, if such indeed it can be call- 
ed, now appears in total contrast with that of the church 
under the apostles. Then, the supreme authority was vest- 
ed in the people; now, it is with the clergy. The church 
then enacted her own laws, and administered her discipline ; 
the pastor, as the executive officer, acting in accordance with 
her will for the promotion of her purity and of her general 
prosperity. The clergy are now the supreme rulers of the 
church, from whom all laws emanate ; and are also the execu- 
tioners of their own arbitrary enactments. The church is no 
longer a free and independent republic, extending to its constit- 
uents the rights and privileges of religious liberty ; but a spir- 
itual monarchy under the power of an ambitious hierarchy 
whose will is law, and whose mandates the people are taught 
to receive, as meting out to them, with wisdom from on high, 
the mercy and the justice, the goodness and severity of their 
righteous Lawgiver and Judge. The people are wholly dis- 

60 Planck, Gesellschafts-Verfass. 1. 509. 



DISCIPLINE BY THE CHURCHES. 117 

franchisee! by the priesthood, who have assumed the preroga- 
tives of that prophetic Antichrist, who " as God sitteth in the 
temple of God, showing himself that he is God." 



REMARKS. 

1. It is the right and the duty of the members of every 
church, themselves to administer the discipline of their own 
body. 

Each church is a voluntary association, formed for the 
mutual enjoyment of the privileges and ordinances of reli- 
gion. To its members belongs the right to prescribe the 
conditions of a connection with their communion, or of ex- 
clusion from it, as may seem good to them, in conformity 
with the principles of the gospel. The right is vested in 
them collectively ; and no man, or body of men, can lawful- 
ly usurp authority over them, or embarrass them in the free 
exercise of this right. Any such interference is an unjust in- 
fringement of their religious liberty. 

The duty of carefully exercising a Christian watch and 
fellowship, one toward another, and of excluding those who 
walk unworthily, is most clearly enforced in the Scriptures ; 
and however it may be disregarded in particular instances, 
it is generally acknowledged to be one important means of 
preserving the purity of the church, and of promoting the in- 
terests of religion. 

2. Ecclesiastical censure is not a penal infliction, but a 
moral discipline for the reformation of the offender and the 
honor of religion. 

This thought has been already presented, but it should be 
borne distinctly in mind. Church discipline seeks, in the 
kindness of Christian love, to recover a fallen brother, to aid 
him in his spiritual conflicts, and to save him from hopeless 
ruin. In its simplicity and moral efficacy, if not in principle, 



118 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

the discipline of the apostolical and primitive churches dif- 
fered totally from that complicated system of penance into 
which it degenerated under the hierarchy. The austerities 
of this system, with its pains and privations, have more the 
appearance of penal inflictions to deter others from sin, than 
of Christian efforts to reclaim the guilty ; and the system 
itself was often, in the hands of the priesthood, an engine of 
torture, with which to molest an adversary or to gratify pri- 
vate resentment. But the Christian love that administers ec- 
clesiastical censure, in the spirit of the apostolical rule, su- 
perior to all sinister motives, seeks only the reformation of 
the offender, and the honor of that sacred cause upon which 
he has brought reproach. 61 

3. This mode of discipline is the best safeguard against 
the introduction of bad men into the church. 

The members of the church who are associated with the 
candidate in the relations and pursuits of private life, best 
know his character. They form the most unbiased judg- 
ment of his qualifications; and have less to pervert their 
decisions than any other men. Commit, therefore, the high 
trust of receiving men into the sacred relations of the church 
of Christ, neither to bishop, nor presbyter, nor pastor, but 
to the united, unbiased decision of the members of that com- 
munion. 

4. Discipline administered by the brethren of the church, 
is the best means of securing the kind and candid trial of 
those who may be the subjects of ecclesiastical censure. 

Cases of this kind are often involved in great difficulty, 
and always require to be treated with peculiar delicacy and 
impartiality. These ends of impartial justice the wisdom 
of the world seeks to secure by the verdict of a jury. The 
brethren of the church, in like manner, are the safest tribu- 
nal for the impeachment of those who walk unworthily. 
Commit to any other hands this high trust, and it is in danger 

61 Venema, Institutiones Hist. Eccles. III. § ]88. p. 214 seq. 



DISCIPLINE BY THE CHURCHES. 119 

either of being totally neglected, or else perverted in its ex- 
ercise by some private bias, or partizan spirit. 

5. The mode of discipline now under consideration, re- 
lieves the pastor from unwelcome responsibilities, both in the 
admission of members and in the treatment of offence?. 

He has a delicate and responsible duty to perform towards 
those who present themselves for admission to the church. 
He is not satisfied, it may be, with regard to the qualifica- 
tions of the candidate, and yet this is only an impression re- 
ceived from a great variety of considerations which cannot 
well be expressed. But to refuse the applicant, without as- 
signing gootl and sufficient reasons, may expose him to the 
charge of uncharitableness, and involve him in great difficul- 
ty. Under this circumstance, no railing accusation can be 
brought against him, provided the case is submitted to the 
impartial decision of the church. 

And again, in the treatment of offences, the pastor should 
always be able to take shelter under the authority of the 
church. Like Paul, in the case of the Corinthians, he may 
be obliged to rebuke them for their neglect, and to urge them 
to their duty. But he should never appear as the accuser 
and prosecutor of any of his people. The trial should be- 
gin and end with the church, who ought always to be ready 
to relieve their pastor from duties so difficult and delicate, 
which belong not to his sacred office. 

6. Discipline so administered serves to promote the peace 
of the church. 

An unruly member of the church often has the address to 
enlist a violent party in his behalf. In every communion 
may be found a certain number of hasty, restless spirits, who 
are ever ready to rally at the cry of bigotry, intolerance, per- 
secution, however unjustly raised. The contention may rise 
high and rend the whole church asunder, if the minister 
alone becomes, in their fiery zeal, the object of attack. The 
only safe appeal is to the calm, deliberate decision of the 



120 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

whole body of the church. Here the case is open for a full 
discussion and a fair decision, which, more than anything 
else, has power to silence the rage of faction, and to calm 
the tumults of party. It is in vain to contend against the 
sovereign power of the majority. The charge of acting from 
personal prejudice and private animosity lies not against them, 
as against a single individual. Thus a church may gather 
about their pastor for the defence of his character, for his 
encouragement in the faithful discharge of his duty, and for 
the preservation of their own peace, by silencing the clamors 
of any restless malcontents. 

7. The only mode that has ever been devised for preserv- 
ing the discipline of the church is to submit it to the control, 
not of the clergy, but of the members themselves. 

In consequence of depriving the members of the church 
of a participation in its discipline, soon after the rise of Epis- 
copacy, they became remiss in their attention to the scan- 
dals of their brethren, and withdrew their watch over each 
other. 62 And since that day, when was it ever known 
that any just discipline was maintained in any church under 
a national establishment and an independent priesthood? 
What is the discipline of the Episcopal church even in this 
country, where, without a state religion, or an independent 
priesthood, the laity have little or no concern with the ad- 
mission of members to their communion, or the exclusion of 
them from it? Let the reader weigh well this consideration. 
It suggests one of our strongest and most important objec- 
tions to the ecclesiastical polity of the Episcopal church.63 

62 Planck, Gesell. Verfass. 1. S. 509 seq. 

63 Some of the clergy of that communion, we understand, are ac- 
customed to keep a private list of those who are wont to receive the 
sacred elements at their hands, and if any are found to walk unworth- 
ily, their names are silently stricken off from the roll, and their com- 
munion with the church is dropped in this informal manner. Such 
pastoral fidelity, duly exercised, is worthy of all consideration. But 
can it be expected, as a general rule, to accomplish the high ends of 



DISCIPLINE BY THE CHURCHES. 121 

Why do the malcontents of other denominations, men of 
equivocal character if not of tarnished reputation, take re- 
fuse in such numbers in that church? We wish tobrino- no 
unjust accusation against that denomination, but it seems to 
be admitted, by members of their own communion, that there- 
is no discipline in the Episcopal church. " Every church 
warden in every parish in England is called upon once a 
year to attend the visitation of his archdeacon. At this time 
oaths are tendered to him respecting his different duties ; and 
among other things he swears, that he will present to the 
archdeacon the names of all such inhabitants of his parish 
as are leading notoriously immoral lives. This oath is regu- 
larly taken once a year by every church warden in every 
parish in England; yet I believe that such a thing as any 
single presentation for notoriously immoral conduct has 
scarcely been heard of for a century." 64 Another of the 
Tractarians complains in the following terms of this total 
neglect of discipline in the Episcopal church. "I think the 
church has, in a measure, forgotten its own principles, as de- 
clared in the sixteenth century ; nay, under stranger circum- 
stances, as far as I know, than have attended any of the er- 
rors and corruptions of the Papists. Grievous as are their 
declensions from primitive usage, I never heard, in any case, 
of their practice directly contradicting their services; where- 
as, we go on lamenting, once a year, the absence of disci- 
pline in our church, yet do not even dream of taking any one 
step towards its restoration." 65 

A well known clergyman of our own country, in assigning 
his " Reasons for preferring Episcopacy," speaks of it as 
" universally felt and admitted" that " in no Christian de- 
faithful Christian discipline? Is it the discipline of the New Testa- 
ment ? Or can it be expected of any class of men, that they wilt 
have the independence to be faithful here ? A magnanimity how 
rare ! 

64 Tracts for the Times, No. 59. p. 416. 65 Ibid. No. 41. p. 297. 

11 



122 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

nomination of the country is there so great a diversity of 
opinion [as in the Episcopal church] about doctrines, church 
polity, etc. But we hear," he adds, " of no discipline on ac- 
count of this diversity. The probability is, that discipline on 
these accounts would rend and break up the church." And 
again he says : " There is no church in the world, that has in 
fact so great a diversity of opinion in her own bosom, as the 
Church of England, and not a little of downright infidelity. 
And yet no one can reasonably doubt, that if she continue 
to let discipline for opinion alone, etc that most im- 
portant branch of Protestantism will ere long be redeemed 
from her past and present disadvantages, and recover the 
primitive vitality of Christianity, so as to have it pervading 
and animating her whole communion. Nor is it less certain, 
that by attempting discipline for opinion, she would forever 
blight all these prospects." 66 

In the Lutheran church in Germany, christian discipline 
has fallen into equal neglect. So totally is it disregarded that 
according to the declaration of a devout minister of that 
church, 67 persons of abandoned character, known to be such, 
and the most notorious slaves of lust are publicly and indis- 
criminately received to the sacrament of the Lord's Supper. 
What ecclesiastical hierarchy, or national establishment was 
ever known to maintain, for any long period, the purity of 
the church ? 

8. This mode of discipline gives spiritual life and power 
to the church. 

The moral efficiency of any body of believers depends, 
not upon their number, but upon the purity of their lives, 
and their fidelity in duty. A church composed of men who 
are a living exemplification of the power of the Christian 
religion by their holy lives, and by the faithful discharge of their 

66 Thoughts on the Religious State of the Country; with Reason9 
for preferring Episcopacy. By Rev. Calvin Colton, pp. 109, 200. 
« Liebetrut, Tag des Herrn, S. 331. 



DISCIPLINE BY THE CHURCHES. 123 

duties, — such a church, and such only, is what the Lord Je- 
sus designed his church should be, — the pillar and ground of 
the truth. Now this being conceded, under what form of 
discipline do we find the purest church? Where do we 
discover the greatest circumspection in the admission of 
members 1 Where, the strictest watch and fellowship, the 
kindest efforts to recover the fallen, and the most faithful en- 
deavors to defend the honor of the Christian name, and to 
promote pure and undefiled religion ? Without intending 
any invidious reflection, may we not request of the reader a 
careful consideration of this subject ? Let him remember, 
also, what his own observation may have taught him, that a 
single case of discipline, rightly conducted, gives renewed 
energy to the whole body, quickening every member into 
newness of life in the service of the Lord. Let him estimate, 
if he can, the moral efficacy of a living church, quickened 
into healthful, holy action, compared with one which has a 
name to live and is dead. Let him ponder well these con- 
siderations, before he decides to go over to a communion that 
tolerates a general neglect of the Christian duty which we 
have been contemplating. 




CHAPTER VI. 

EQUALITY AND IDENTITY OF BISHOPS AND 
PRESBYTERS. 

Soon after the ascension of our Lord, it became expedient 
for the brethren to appoint a certain class of officers to su- 
perintend the secular concerns of their fraternity. These 
were denominated didxovoi, servants, ministers, deacons. In 
process of time, another order of men arose among them, 
whose duty it was to superintend the religious interests of the 
church. These were denominated ol nqoiardfievoi, Rom. 
12: 8. 1 Thess. 5: 12; ol nyov^voi, Heb. 13: 7, 17, 24 ; 
TtQEG^vtsgoi, Acts 20: 17 ; imaxonoi, Acts 20: 28, equivalent 
to the terms, presidents, leaders, elders, overseers. These 
terms all indicate one and the same office, that of a presid- 
ing officer in their religious assemblies. Officers of this class 
are usually designated, by the apostles and the earliest ecclesi- 
astical writers, as presbyters and bishops, — names which are 
used interchangeably and indiscriminately to denote one and 
the same office. 

The appropriate duty of the bishop or presbyter at first 
was, not to teach or to preach, but to preside over the church, 
and to preserve order in their assemblies. " They were orig- 
inally chosen as in the synagogue, not so much for the in- 
struction and edification of the church, as for taking the lead 
in its general government." 1 The necessity of such a pre- 

1 Neander's Apost. Kirch. I. p. 44 seq. Comp. Siegel, Handbuch, 
IV. S. 223. Ziegler, Versuch, der kirchlichen Verfassungsformen, 
S. 3 — 12. Rothe, Anfange, I. S. 153. So, also, Gieseler, Rhein- 
wald, Bohmer, Winer, etc. 



EQUALITY OF BISHOPS AND PRESBYTERS. 125 

siding officer in the church at Corinth is sufficiently apparent 
from the apostle's rebuke of their irregularities. " How is 
it, then, brethren 1 When ye come together, every one of you 
hath a psalm, hath a doctrine, hath a revelation, hath an in- 
terpretation. Let all things be done unto edifying." 1 Cor. 
14: 26. The apostle, however, allows all to prophesy, to ex- 
ercise their spiritual gifts ; and only requires them to speak 
" one by one," that all things may be done decently and in 
order. The ordinary officers of the apostolical church, then, 
comprised two distinct classes or orders. The one was 
known by the name of deacons ; the other, designated by va- 
rious titles, of which those most frequently used are presby- 
ters and bishops. 

Oar proposition is, that Bishops and Presbyters, accord- 
ing to the usage of the apostles and of the earliest ecclesias- 
tical writers, are identical and convertible terms, denoting 
officers of one and the same class. In this proposition we 
join issue with the Episcopalians, who assert that bishops 
were divinely appointed as an order of men superior to pres- 
byters. We, on the other hand, affirm that presbyters were 
the highest grade of officers known in the apostolical and 
primitive churches ; and that the title of bishop was original- 
ly only another name for precisely the same officer. Even af- 
ter a distinction began to be made between presbyters and 
bishops, we affirm that the latter were not a peculiar order 
distinct from presbyters and superior to them. The bishop 
was merely one of the presbyters appointed, like the modera- 
tor, to preside over the college of his fellow-presbyters, but 
belonging still to the same body, performing only the same 
pastoral duties, and exercising only the same spiritual func- 
tions. Like the moderator of a modern presbytery or asso- 
ciation, he still retained a ministerial parity with his brethren, 
in the duties, rights and privileges of the sacred office. Our 
sources of argument in defence of this general proposition 
are two-fold, — Scripture and History. 

11* 



126 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

I. The scriptural argument for the equality and identity 
of bishops and presbyters. This may be comprised under 
the following heads : 

1. The appellations and titles of a presbyter are used 
indiscriminately and interchangeably with those of a bishop. 

2. A presbyter is required to possess the same qualifica- 
tions as a bishop. 

3. The official duties of a presbyter are the same as those 
of a bishop. 

4. There was, in the apostolical churches, no ordinary 
and permanent class of ministers superior to that of pres- 
byters. 

1. The appellations and titles of a presbyter are used in- 
terchangeably with those of a bishop. 

One of the most unequivocal proof-texts in the Scriptures 
is found in Acts 20: 17, compared with verse 28. Paul, on 
his journey to Jerusalem, sent from Miletus and called the 
presbyters, TtQzaftvztQovg, elders, of Ephesus. And to these 
same presbyters, when they had come, he says, in his affec- 
tionate counsel to them, " Take heed to yourselves, and to 
all the flock over which the Holy Ghost hath made you bish- 
ops, Iniayionovg, to feed the church of God which he hath 
purchased with his own blood." Both terms are here used 
in the same sentence with reference to the same men. 

We have another instance, equally clear, of the indiscrimi- 
nate use of the terms, in the first chapter of Paul's epistle 
to Titus. " For this cause I left thee in Crete, that thou 
shouldst set in order the things that are wanting, and ordain 
presbyters, 7ZQ80@v7£Qovg, in every city, as I had appointed 
thee." Then follows an enumeration of the qualifications 
which are requisite in these presbyters, one of which is given 
in these words : " A bishop must be blameless, as the Stew- 
ard of God." 

Again, it is worthy of particular attention, that the apos- 



EQUALITY OF BISHOPS AND PRESBYTERS. 127 

tie, in his instructions to Timothy, 1 Tim. 3: 1 — 7, respect- 
ing the qualifications of a bishop, proceeds immediately to 
specify those of deacons, the second class of officers in the 
church, without making the least allusion to presbyters, 
though confessedly giving instructions for the appointment 
of the appropriate officers of the church. This omission 
was not a mere oversight in the writer ; for he subsequently 
alludes to the presbytery , 4: 14, and commends those that 
rule well, 5: 17. In these passages the apostle evidently has 
in mind the same offices, and uses the terms bishop and pres- 
byter, as identical in meaning. 

To all the saints in Christ Jesus which are at Philippi, the 
apostle addresses his salutation, — to the saints, with the 
bishops and deacons, that is, to the church and the officers of 
the church. Here, again, as in all the New Testament, 
these officers were distributed into two classes. For, had 
there been at Philippi a third order of ministers, superi- 
or to the deacons, it is incredible that the apostle could 
have omitted all allusion to them, in a salutation so specific. 
In truth, we must either charge him with neglecting an 
important and superior class of officers in the church at 
Philippi, a neglect totally inconsistent with his character, or 
we must admit that the presbyters are addressed in the salu- 
tation of the bishops as being one and the same with them. 

The supposition, again, that these were bishops of the 
Episcopal order, involves the absurdity of a plurality of bish- 
ops over the same church ; a supposition at variance with the 
first principles of Diocesan Episcopacy, which admits of but 
one in a city. 2 This difficulty appears to have forcibly im- 

2 " Epiphanius tells us, that Peter and Paul were both bishops of 
Rome at once : by which it is plain he took the title of bishop in an- 
other sense than now it is used; for now, and so for a long time up- 
ward, two bishops can no more possess one see, than two hedge-spar- 
rows dwell in one bush. St. Peter's time was a little too early for 
bishops to rise." — Hales' Works, Vol. I. p. 110. 



128 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

pressed the mind of Chrysostom. " How is this?" exclaims 
the eloquent patriarch. " Were there many bishops in the 
same city? By no means; but he calls the presbyters by this 
name [bishops] ; for at that time this was the common ap- 
pellation of both." 3 

Finally, we appeal to 1 Pet. 5: 2, 3, where the apostle, as 
a fellow-presbyter, exhorts the presbyters to feed the flock of 
God, taking the oversight of them, Inia'Aonovvzeg, acting the 
bishop, performing the duties of a bishop over them, requiring 
of them the same duties which the apostle Paul enjoins upon 
the presbyter-bishops of Ephesus. As at Ephesus, where Paul 
gave his charge to those presbyters, so here, again, it is evi- 
dent that there could have been no bishop over those whom 
Peter commits to the oversight of these presbyters. But 
who are the flock in this instance ? Plainly, any body of 
those Christians scattered throughout Pontus, Galatia, Cap- 
padocia, Asia, and Bithynia, to whom he addresses his epis- 
tle. These Christians, throughout this vast extent of coun- 
try, are committed to the care of their presbyters, who are 
severally to act as the pastors and bishops of their respective 
charges. 

Thus it appears that the appellations and titles of a pres- 
byter are used indiscriminately and interchangeably with 
those of a bishop. In the same sentence even, and general- 
ly throughout the writings of the apostles, these are perfect- 
ly convertible terms, as different names of the same thing. 
This fact is very forcibly exhibited in the following summary 
from the Rev. Dr. Mason. " That the terms bishop and pres- 
byter, in their application to the first class of officers, are 
perfectly convertible, the one pointing out the very same 
class of rulers with the other, is as evident as the sun 

3 2vv IniOHOTTOi? xal Siaxovoig. Tl tovto ; juiag nokstug iroXXol 
em'oxonoi r t oav ; Ovda/uo)?; a)JJ.d xov? TrpsofiiTtpovg ovrojg ty.dkeos • 
tots yelp Ttojg izoivohovv xotg ovouaoi- — In Phil. 1: 1. p. 199 seq. 
Tom. 11. 



EQUALITY OF BISHOPS AND PRESBYTERS. 129 

' shining in his strength.' Timothy was instructed by the 
apostle Paul in the qualities which were to be required in 
those who desired the office of a bishop.* Paul and Barna- 
bas ordained presbyters in every churchi which they had 
founded. Titus is directed to ordain in every city presby- 
ters who are to be blameless, the husband of one wife. And 
the reason of so strict a scrutiny into character is thus render- 
ed,for a bishop must be blameless.\ If this does not identify 
the bishop with the presbyter, in the name of common sense, 
what can do it? Suppose a law, pointing out the qualifica- 
tions of a sheriff, were to say, a sherif must be a man of pure 
character, of great activity, and resolute spirit; for it is 
highly necessary that a governor be of unspotted reputation, 
etc., the bench and bar would be rather puzzled for a con- 
struction, and would be compelled to conclude, either that 
something had been left out in transcribing the law, or that 
governor and sheriff meant the same sort of officer ; or that 
their honors of the legislature had taken leave of their wits. 
The case is not a whit stronger than the case of a presbyter 
and bishop in the epistle to Titus. Again : Paul, when on 
his last journey to Jerusalem, sends for the presbyters of 
Ephesus to meet him at Miletus, and there enjoins these 
presbyters to feed the church of God over which the Holy 
Ghost had made them bishops. § It appears, then, that the 
bishops to whom Paul refers in his instructions to Timothy, 
were neither more nor less than plain presbyters. To a man 
who has no turn to serve, no interest in perverting the ob- 
vious meaning of words, one would think that a mathemat- 
ical demonstration could not carry more satisfactory evi- 
dence." 4 

These terms, as the reader must have noticed, are also 
precise and definite, descriptive of a peculiar office, which 

* 1 Tim. 3: 1. 1 Acts 14: 23. % Tit. 1:5. § Acts 20: 17, 28. 
4 Mason's Works, Vol. III. pp. 41 — 43. Comp. King, Prim. 
Christ, pp. 67, 68. 



130 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

he is in no danger of mistaking for any other in the apos- 
tolic church. The name of apostle is not in a single in- 
stance exchanged for that of bishop, or deacon. But the 
term presbyter, on the contrary, is in a few instances assumed 
by the apostles as an appropriate designation of their office. 
" The elder, 7iQE<j[}vtEQog, the presbyter unto the elect lady," 
John, Epist. 2, 1: 1. The presbyter unto the well beloved 
Gaius, Epist. 3, 1: 1. and 1 Peter 5: 1. If therefore, this 
use of the name is of any importance in the argument, it in- 
timates that presbyters rather than bishops are the true suc- 
cessors of the apostles. But in truth, these terms are not 
confounded with any other title ; and for the very obvious 
reason, that they are descriptive of an office distinct from all 
others. Why, then, are these particular terms mutually in- 
terchanged one with the other, save that they are equally 
descriptive of the same office ? Indeed, the original identity 
of bishops and presbyters, is now conceded by Episcopa- 
lians themselves. " That presbyters were called bishops I 
readily grant; that this proves that the officer who was then 
called a bishop, and consequently the office, was the same." 5 
" The Episcopalian cannot be found who denies the inter- 
changeable employment of the terms bishop and presbyter 
in the New Testament." 6 Bishop Burnet admits that they 
" are used promiscuously by the writers of the first two cen- 
turies." 

The scriptural title of the office under consideration is 
usually that of presbyter or elder. It had long been in use 
in the synagogue. It denoted an office familiar to every Jew. 
It conveyed a precise idea of a ruler whose powers were well 
denned and perfectly understood. When adopted into the 
Christian church, its meaning must have been easily settled ; 
for the office was essentially the same in the church as pre- 
viously in the synagogue. Accordingly, it constantly occurs 

5 Bowden, Works on Episcop. Vol. 1. p. 161. 

6 Chapman, cited in Smyth's P-res. and Prelacy, p. 111. 



EQUALITY OF BISHOPS AND PRESBYTERS. 131 

in the writings of the apostle, to denote an officer familiarly 
known, but having no resemblance to a modern diocesan 
bishop. The term, bishop, occurs but five times in the New 
Testament ; and, in each instance, in such a connection as to 
be easily identified with that of presbyter. The former is de- 
rived from the Greek language, the latter has a Jewish origin. 
Accordingly, it is worthy of notice, that the apostles, when 
addressing Jewish Christians, use the term presbyter ; but in 
their addresses to Gentile converts, they adopt the term 
bishop, as less obnoxious to those who spoke the Greek lan- 
guage. 7 

2. A presbyter is required to possess the same qualifica- 
tions as a bishop. 

The apostle has specified at length the qualifications, both 
for a bishop and a presbyter, which for the sake of compari- 
son, are here set in opposite columns. 

QUALIFICATIONS. 

For a bishop, Tim. 3 : 2—7. For a presbyter, Tit. 1 : 6—10. 

A bishop must be blameless, If any be blameless, the hus- 
the husband of one wife, one that band of one wife, having faithful 
ruleth well his own house, having children, (who are) not accused 
his children in subjection with all of riot, or unruly. V. 6. 
gravity. -For if a man know not 
how to rule his own house, how- 
shall he take care of the church 
cf God ? Vs. 2, 4, 5. 

Vigilant, vrjqdXtov, circumspect, A lover of hospitality, a lover 
sober, of good behaviour, given to of good men, sober, just, holy, 
hospitality, apt to teach. V. 2. temperate, holding fast the faith- 
ful word as he hath been taught, 
that he may be able by sound doc- 
trine both to exhort, and to con- 
vince the gainsayers. Vs. 8, 9. 

' Rothe, Anfange, I. 218,219. Neander, Apost.Kirch.I. 178,179. 
Schoene, Geschichtsforschungen, I. 247 — 249. Comp. Bishop Croft, 
in Smyth's Apost. Succ. p. 159. 



132 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

Not given to wine, no striker, A bishop must be blameless, as 
not greedy of filthy lucre, but the steward of God, not self-will- 
patient, t7rt£ixfj, gentle, not soon ed, not soon angry, not given to 
angry, not a brawler, not cove- wine, no striker, not given to fil- 
tous, not a novice, lest being thy lucre. V.7. 
lifted up with pride, he fall into 
the condemnation of the devil. 
Moreover, he must have a good 
report of them which are with- 
out, lest he fall into reproach, and 
the snare of the de vil. Vs. 3, 6, 7. 

The qualifications are identical throughout. Is a blame- 
less, sober and virtuous life, a meek and quiet spirit, requir- 
ed of a bishop 1 so are they of a presbyter. Whatever is 
needful for the one, is equally essential for the other. If, 
then, there be this wide and perpetual distinction between 
the two, which Episcopacy claims, how extraordinary that 
the apostle, when stating the qualifications of a humble pres- 
byter, should not abate an iota from those which are requi- 
site for the high office of a bishop. How strong the pre- 
sumption, or rather how irresistible the conviction, that this 
dignitary of the modern church was totally unknown in those 
days of primitive, republican simplicity ; and that the bishop 
of the apostolic churches was neither more nor less than a 
plain, simple presbyter, the pastor of any church over which 
he had been duly constituted. The conclusion is unavoida- 
ble, that, in the case before us, the author is only designating 
the same office by different names, of similar import. Such 
is the decision of the great Jerome, the most learned of the 
Latin fathers. " In both epistles," referring to those now 
under consideration, " whether bishops or presbyters are to 
be elected, (for with the ancients, bishops and presbyters 
must have been the same, the one being descriptive of rank 
and the other of age,) they are required each to be the hus- 
band of one wife." 8 

8 In utraque epistola sive episcopi sive presbyteri (quanquam apud 



EQUALITY OF BISHOPS AND PRESBYTERS. 135 

3. The duties of a presbyter are the same as those of a 
bishop. 

As bishops and presbyters are called by the same names, 
and required to possess the same qualifications, so they are 
summoned to discharge the same official duties. Their duties, 
severally and equally, are to rule, to counsel and instruct, 
to administer the ordinances, and to ordain. 

(a) Both exercised the same authority over the church. 

If bishops were known in the apostolical churches, as a- 
distinct order, the right of government confessedly belonged 
to them. We have, therefore, only to show that presbyters 
exercised the same right. This exercise of authority is de- 
noted in the New Testament by several terms, each of which 
is distinctly applied to presbyters. 

(a) Such is rjyiofiai y to lead, to guide, etc. In Heb. 13: 
7 and 17, this term occurs. Remember them that have the 
rule over you, tcoV rjyov{i{v(ov vfioov. Obey them that have 
rule over you, roTg yyovfisvoig v^mv. The first exhortation to 
the Hebrews, the apostle enforces by an immediate reference 
to their deceased pastors ; and the second, by reference to 
those who still survived to watch for their souls. Are these 
references to diocesan bishops, or to those presbyters who reg- 
ularly performed among the Hebrews the duties of a presbyter ? 

(|3) Another term expressive of authority over the church 
is, 7iQ0i6ti]\\i, to preside, to rule. Xenophon uses this verb 
to express the act of leading or ruling an ancient chorus and 
an army. 9 The apostle Paul uses the same to express the au- 
thority which the presbyters exercised as rulers of the church. 

" We beseech you, brethren, to know them which labor 

veteres iidem episcopi et presbyteri fuerint quia illud nomen dignita- 
tis est, hoc aetatis) jubentur monogami in clerum eligi. — Ep. 83, ad 
Oceannm, Tom. 4. p. 648. 

9 OvStv ofxoiov ion yoqov rs xcu OTgarni/uarog nQosordvcu. u Be- 
tween the taking the lead of a chorus and the command of an army," 
both expressed by ir^osordvai, " theie is no analogy." — Mem. 3. 4. 3. 

12 



134 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

among you and are over you, Tzooiaiaptvovg, in the Lord." 
1 Thess. 5: 12. Prelates of the church, these presbyters can- 
not have been; for there were several, it appears, in this sin- 
gle city, a circumstance totally incompatible with the organ- 
ization of diocesan Episcopacy. The whole, taken together, 
is descriptive, not of a bishop in his see, but of a presbyter, a 
pastor, in the faithful discharge of his parochial duties. Again, 
" Let the elders, presbyters, that rule well, be accounted wor- 
thy of double honor," ol aalwg 7iQ0iGT0J7tg rtQEoftvteQOi. 1 
Tim. 5: 17. Here are presbyters ruling over the church of 
Ephesus, where, according to the Episcopal theory, Timothy, 
as bishop, had established the seat of his apostolical see. 

(y) Another term of frequent occurrence, in writers both 
sacred and profane of approved authority, is noipaiva, to feed, 
metaphorically, to cherish, to provide for, to rule, to govern. 
It expresses the office, and comprehends all the duties of a 
shepherd. This term the apostle uses in his exhortation to 
the presbyters of Ephesus at Miletus. " Take heed to your- 
selves, and to all the flock over which the Holy Ghost hath 
made you bishops, to feed, Ttoifiaiveiv, the church of God." 
Beyond all question, this term, both in classic and hellenistic 
Greek, expresses the power of government. Both this and 
yyov(i£vog above mentioned, are used in the same passage to 
express the government of Christ, the chief Shepherd, over 
his people Israel. " Thou, Bethlehem, in the land of Juda, 
art not the least among the princess of Juda, for out of thee 
shall come a governor, rjyovpevog, who shall rule, noiiturti, 
my people Israel." Without further illustration, which might 
easily be added, we have sufficient evidence, from what has 
been said, that the presbyters were invested with all the autho- 
rity to guide, govern, and provide for the church, which the 
bishop himself could exercise. The very same terms which ex- 
press the highest power of government, and which are applied 
to the office even of the great Head of the Church, are used to 
express the authority of presbyters, and to set forth the power 



EQUALITY OF BISHOPS AND PRESBYTERS. 135 

with which they are invested to rule and feed the church. No 
intimation is given of any higher power in any minister of 
Christ ; neither have we terms to express any superior au- 
thority. The conclusion therefore is, that they " are invested 
with the highest power of government known in the church." 

(6) Presbyters were the authorized counsellors of the church; 
and, in connection with the apostles, constituted the highest 
court of appeal for the settlement of controversies in the 
church. 

About the year 45 or 50, a spirited controversy arose at 
Antioch, which threatened to rend the church, and to hinder 
the progress of that gospel which Paul and Barnabas had 
begun successfully to preach to the Gentiles. It was of the 
utmost importance that this dispute should be immediately 
and finally settled. For this purpose, a delegation, consist- 
ing of Paul, and Barnabas, and others, was sent from the 
church at Antioch, on an embassy to Jerusalem, to submit 
the subject under discussion to the examination and decision 
of the church, with the apostles and presbyters. This dele- 
gation was kindly received by the members of the church 
at Jerusalem, with their officers, the apostles, teachers and el- 
ders, and to them the whole subject of the dissension at Anti- 
och was submitted. Peter, John and James were, at this time, 
at Jerusalem, and, with Paul, Barnabas and Titus, were 
members of this council. The subject was discussed at 
length on both sides, but the concurring opinions of Peter, 
Paul and James finally prevailed, and the council united 
harmoniously in the sentiments expressed by these apostles. 
It is observable, however, that the result of the council was 
given, not in the name of James 10 or any one of the apostles, 

10 That James did not draw up this decree as " the head of the 
church at Jerusalem," and as his "authoritative sentence," is un- 
answerably shown by R.ev. Dr. Mason, in his Review of Essays on 
Episcopacy. The amount of the argument is, that James simply ex- 
presses his opinion, verse 19; just as Peter and Paul had done before. 



136 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

but conjointly, by the apostles, and presbyters, and brethren. 
Acts 15: 23. With this decision the delegation returned to 
Antioch, accompanied by Judas and Silas. The message of 
the council was received by the assembled church at Anti- 
och, who gladly acquiesced in that decision. Throughout 
the whole narrative the presbyters appear as the authorized 
counsellors of the church, and the only ordinary officers of 
the church, whose opinion is sought in connection with that 
of the apostles, without any intimation of an intermediate 
grade of bishops. 11 

(c) It was the appropriate office of the presbyters to ad- 
minister the ordinances of the church. 

It is inconceivable that the performance of these duties 
could have been restricted to the apostles. The sacrament 
was at first administered daily ; 12 and afterwards, on each 
Lord's day as a part of public worship. The frequency and 
universality of the ordinance, of necessity required that it 
should be administered by the ordinary ministers of the 
church. Baptism, by a like necessity, devolved upon them. 
The numerous and far-spreading triumphs of the gospel utter- 
ly forbid the idea, that the apostles, few in number, and 
charged with the high commission of preaching the gospel, 

So the word, v.qivoi, in the connection in which it is used, implies, and 
so it was understood by the sacred historian, who in Acts 16: 4, de- 
clares, that the " authoritative sentence," the decrees, were ordained 
by the apostles and presbyters. Comp. also, Acts 21: 25. The case 
was not referred to James, neither could it be submitted to him as 
bishop of Jerusalem, Antioch lying entirely without his diocese, even 
on the supposition that Jerusalem was the seat of his Episcopal see. 
The authority of this decree was also acknowledged in all the church- 
es of Asia. The supposition, that it was the official and authoritative 
sentence of James as bishop, exalts him above all the other apostles 
who were members of the council, and gives him a power, far-reach- 
ing and authoritative beyond that which belonged to St Peter him- 
self, the prelatical head of the church. 

11 Comp. Rothe, Anfange, Vol. I. S. 181, 182. 

12 Neander, Apost. Kirch. 1. p. 30. 



EQUALITY OF BISHOPS AND PRESBYTERS. 137 

and giving themselves wholly to this as their appropriate work, 
could have found time and means for going everywhere, and 
baptizing with their own hands all that believed on the Lord 
Jesus Christ. Besides, they appear expressly to have dis- 
claimed this work, and to have entrusted the service chiefly 
to other hands. " I thank God that I baptized none of you 
but Crispus and Gaius. And I baptized also the household 
of Stephanas ; besides, I know not whether I baptized any 
other. For Christ sent me, not to baptize, but to preach." 
1 Cor. 1: 14 — 17. Cornelius, again, was baptized, not by 
Peter, but by some christian disciple, agreeable to his com- 
mand. The apostles, indeed, very seldom baptized. The 
inference therefore is, that this service was by them commit- 
ted to the presbyters, the ordinary officers of the church. 

The right of presbyters to administer these ordinances is 
clearly asserted by Augusti and other writers on the subject, 
as exhibited in our Christian Antiquities. 13 Even the Epis- 
copalian, who claims this right as the peculiar prerogative of 
the bishop, and maintains that the presbyter only acted as 
his representative, still admits that, previous to the establish- 
ment of the Episcopal system, the ordinances were adminis- 
tered by presbyters. To this effect is one of the latest and 
best authorities. "In the earliest times, when no formal dis- 
tinction between £ttigxo7zoi [bishops], and tzq8G@V7Eqo(, [pres- 
byters], had taken place, the presbyters, especially the 7zqoe- 
6TWT8Q [presiding presbyters], 1 Tim. 5: 17, discharged 
those Episcopal functions, which, afterwards, when a careful 
distinction of ecclesiastical officers had been made, they 
were not permitted to discharge, otherwise than as substi- 
tutes or vicars of a bishop. Instances, however, do some- 
times occur in later times, of presbyters having officiated in 
matters which, according to the canon-law, belonged only 
to the Episcopal office." 14 

13 Chap. III. § 8. 14 Riddle, Chr. Antiquities, p. 233. 

12* 



138 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

Tertullian asserts the right even of the laity both to bap- 
tize, tingere, and to administer the sacrament, offere. His 
reasons are, that the distinction between the clergy and laity 
is the device of the church, — that in the Scriptures all are 
priests of God, and that, having the right of priesthood in 
themselves, the laity are at liberty to perform the offices of 
the priesthood, as they may have occasion. 15 

Even Rigaltius, a Roman Catholic, in commenting on 
this passage, admits that the laity were permitted, in the 
primitive church, to administer the ordinances, though it was 
afterwards forbidden in the ecclesiastical law. The same is 
also affirmed by the learned Erasmus. 16 If further evidence 
of the fact be needful it may be found given at length in 
the treatises of Grotius. 17 

15 Vani erimus si putaverimus, quod sacerdotibus non liceat, laicis 
licere. Nonne el laici sacerdotes suraus ? Scriptum est regnum quo- 
que nos et sacerdotes Deo et Patri suo fecit. Differentiam inter ordi- 
nern et plebem constituit ecclesiae auctoritas, et honor per ordinis con- 
.sessum sanctificatus a Deo, ibi ecclesiastici ordinis non est confes- 
sus? Et offers et tingis ; sacerdos es tibi solus. Sed ubi tres, ecclesia 
est, licet laici ; unusquisque de sua ride vivit; nee est personarum ex- 
ceptio apud Deum, quoniam nonauditores legis justificabuntur a Deo, 
sed factores, secundum quod et apostolus dicit. Igitur si habes jus 
sacerdotis in temetipso ubi necesse sit, habeas oportet etiam discipli- 
nam sacerdotis, ubi necesse sit habere jus sacerdotis. — De Exhort. 
Cast. c. 7. The same thing also is implied in another passage, from 
Tertullian, De Virgin. Vet. c. 9, in which he denies to women this 
right. The denial of the right to women is an admission that it was 
the authorized prerogative of the other sex. 

16 Constat temporibus apostolorum fuisse synaxin quam laici inter 
se faciebant adhibita praecatione et benedictione, et earn panem, ut 
est probabile, appellabant corpus Domini, ut frequenter etiam sacris 
literis eadem vox signo et rei signatae accommodatur Fieri enim po- 
test ut de hac synaxi loquatur ibi Origenes. — Ep Lib. 26, Vol. III. 
Origen, in the middle of the third century, was permitted by two 
hishops, in Palestine, to explain the Scriptures to their congregation, 
though he had never been ordained. And many bishops of the East, 
according to Eusebius, allowed even the laity to preach. — Eccl. Hist. 
6. c. 19. Comp. Neander, Allgemein. Gesch. 1. S. 336, 2d edit. 

17 Tract., De Coenae Jidministratione ubi pastor es non sunt. 



EQUALITY OF BISHOPS AND PRESBYTERS. 139 

(d) It was the right of presbyters to ordain. 

What reason can be assigned, may we ask, why they 
should not solemnize this rite, as well as perform other min- 
isterial duties? What solemnity has this rite above all oth- 
ers, that its performance must be restricted to one order of 
the priesthood ? It is the right of the presbyter to baptize, to 
administer the sacrament, to instruct and provide for all the 
spiritual wants of the flock of Christ, as the shepherd and 
bishop of their souls ; and has he no right to induct into 
the sacred office, his fellow-laborers and successors in the 
service of the chief Shepherd? 18 Until assured of the con- 
trary by the word of God, we must presume that the right to 
ordain belongs to those presbyters whom the Holy Ghost has 
made overseers of the flock, to feed the church of God. 

The subject of our present inquiry hardly admits of an 
appeal to Scripture ; for the writers of the New Testament 
have left us no specific instructions on this subject. Neither 
have we any uniform precedent in the apostolical churches. 
The apostles were not set apart by any solemnity beside 
their commission from Christ. He lifted up his hands, in- 
deed, and blessed them, as he was parted from them, and 
they were filled with the Holy Ghost. The act was signifi- 
cant of the miraculous communication of spiritual gifts, as 
in various other instances, Acts 8: 17. 19:6; but had no 
analogy to Episcopal ordination. No record is given of any 
formal ordination of Matthias, after his election to the apos- 
tolical office. 

The seven deacons were inducted into their office by 
prayer, and the laying on of hands. This may have been, 
and perhaps was, the usual mode of setting apart any one to 
a religious service. But was the imposition of hands exclu- 
sively ordination? It was a rite familiar to the Jews; and 
denoted either a benediction, or the communication of mirac- 
ulous gifts. Jacob, in blessing the sons of Joseph, laid his 

18 Comp. Gerhardi, Loci Theolog. Vol. XII. p. 159. 



ife 



THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 



hands upon their heads. So Jesus took young children in 
his arms and blessed them, laying his hands upon them. So 
Paul and Barnabas were dismissed, to go on their missionary 
tour, with the blessing of the brethren at Antioch, by the 
laying on of hands, Acts 13: 3. Whatever may have been 
the specific office of the prophet and teachers at Antioch, 
they were not apostles. On the supposition, therefore, that 
the laying on of hands was performed by them, no reason ap- 
pears why the same might not be done with equal propriety by 
presbyters. But this was not an ordination of Paul and Bar- 
nabas ; for they had long been engaged in ministerial duties. 
The imposition of hands appears also in some instances 
to have occurred more than once, as in the case of Timothy, 
upon whom this rite was performed by the presbytery, 1 Tim. 
4: 14; and again, by the apostle Paul, 2 Tim. 1: 6. Such 
at least is the understanding which Rothe has of the case. 19 
This fact forbids the supposition, that the laying on of 
hands was the solemnizing act in the rite of ordination, 
which, according to all ecclesiastical usage, cannot be re- 
peated. In the passage, Acts 14: 23, the phrase %£iQ070vr}~ 
cavteg, etc. has been already shown to relate, not to the con- 
secration, but to the appointment of the elders in every 
church. 20 

19 Rothe, Anfange der Christ. Kirch. S. 161. 

20 (t Where, it may be asked, resides the right, or power, and in 
what consists the importance of ordination? It is not the source of 
ministerial authority ; for that, as it has been endeavored to show, 
does not, and cannot, rest on human foundation. It does not admit 
to the pastoral office ; for even in the Episcopal church, the title to 
office, which is an indispensable pre-requisite, is derived from the 
nomination of the person who has the disposal of the case. It is not 
office, but official character, which Episcopal ordination is supposed 
to convey, together with whatsoever the advocates of Episcopacy 
may choose to understand by those solemn words, used hy the ordain- 
ing bishop (an application of them which Nonconformists deem aw- 
fully inappropriate), ' Receive the Holy Ghost.' The Jewish ordina- 
tion, on the contrary, although sometimes accompanied, when admin- 



EQUALITY OF BISHOPS AND PRESBYTERS. 141 

The imposition of hands is a rite derived from the Jews, 
and significant of the communication of the gifts of the 
Father. This venerable rite was used by Christ, and with 
great propriety has been retained in the Christian church. 
But with the apostles it was the customary mode of impart- 
ing the laQioiucTa, the miraculous gifts of that age. So the 
converts at Samaria received the Holy Ghost, Acts 8 : 17, 
and in the like manner, when Paul had laid his hands upon 
the Ephesian converts, the Holy Ghost came upon them, 
and they spake with tongues and prophesied, Acts 19 : 6. In 
the same sense is to be understood the gift, %aQt'<j{ia, which 
was bestowed on Timothy by prophecy, with the laying on of 
the hands of the presbytery, 1 Tim. 4: 14. The meaning 

istered by the apostles, by the communication of miraculous gifts, 
was in itself no more than a significant form of benediction on ad- 
mission to a specific appointment. Of this nature were the offices 
connected with the synagogue, in contradistinction from those of the 
priesthood. When Paul and Barnabas were sent out from the church 
at Antioch, they submitted to the same impressive ceremony : not 
surely that either authority, or power of any kind, or miraculous 
qualifications, devolved upon the apostle and his illustrious compan- 
ion, by virtue of the imposition of Presbyterian hands ! What then 
is ordination ? The answer is, a decent and becoming solemnity, adop- 
ted from the Jewish customs by the primitive church, significant of the 
separation of an individual to some specific appointment in the christian 
ministry, and constituting both a recognition on the part of the officia- 
ting presbyters, of the ministerial character of the person appointed, and 
a desirable sanction of the proceedings of the church. It is, however, 
something more than a mere circumstance, the imposition of hands 
being designed to express that fervent benediction which accom- 
panied the ceremony, and which constitutes the true spirit of the rite. 
To an occasion which, when the awful responsibility of the pastoral 
charge is adequately felt, imparts to the prayers and the affectionate 
aid of those who are fathers and brethren in the ministry, a more es- 
pecial value, the sign and solemn act of benediction must appear pe- 
culiarly appropriate. This venerable ceremony may also be regarded 
as a sort of bond of fellowship among the churches of Christ, a sign 
of unity, and an act of brotherhood." — Conder 's Protestant Noncon- 
formity, Vol. I. p. 242. 



142 TOE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

simply is, that by the imposition of hands that peculiar 
spiritual gift denominated prophecy was imparted to Tim- 
othy. 21 Of the same import are 2 Tim. 1: 6, and 1 Tim. 
5: 22. Both relate to the communication of spiritual gifts. 
If the rite of ordination was implied and included in it, then 
the same act must be expressive both of this induction into 
office, and of the communication of spiritual gifts. This 
is Neander's explanation of the transaction. "The conse- 
cration to offices in the church was conducted in the follow- 
ing manner. After those persons to whom its performance 
belonged, had laid their hands on the head of the candidate, 
— a symbolic action borrowed from the Jewish n^Ep, — they 
besought the Lord that he would grant, what this symbol de- 
noted, the impartation of the gifts of his Spirit for carrying 
on the office thus undertaken in his name. If, as was pre- 
sumed, the whole ceremony corresponded to its intent, and 
the requisite disposition existed in those for whom it was per- 
formed, there was reason for considering the communication 
of the spiritual gifts necessary for the office, as connected 
with this consecration performed in the name of Christ. 
And since Paul from this point of view designated the whole 
of the solemn proceeding (without separating it into its va- 
rious elements), by that which was its external symbol (as, 
in scriptural phraseology, a single act of a transaction con- 
sisting of several parts, and sometimes that which was most 
striking to the senses, is often mentioned for the whole) ; he 
required of Timothy that he should seek to revive afresh 
the spiritual gifts that he had received by the laying on of 
hands." 22 

The question has been asked, but never yet answered, 
who ordained Apollos ? See Acts 18: 24 — 26. 1 Cor. 3: 
5—7. 

It remains to consider the case of Paul the apostle. Of 

21 Rothe, Anfange, T. S. 161. 

22 Neander, Apost. Kirch. 1. 213. Comp. pp. 88, 300, 3d edit. 



EQUALITY OF BISHOPS AND PRESBYTERS. 143 

whom did he receive ordination ? One Ananias, a disciple 
and a devout man according to the law, and having a good 
report of all the Jews that dwelt at Damascus, — this man 
prayed and laid his hands upon Paul, and straightway he 
preached Christ in the synagogues. Soon after this he spent 
three years in Arabia ; then, for a whole year he and Barna- 
bas assembled themselves icith the church and taught much 
people at Antioch, Acts 11: 26. After all this, he was sent 
forth by the Holy Ghost, on his mission to the Gentiles. 
Preparatory to this mission he was recommended to the 
grace of God, by fasting, prayer and the imposition of hands. 
Even this was not done by any of the apostles, but by cer- 
tain prophets and teachers, such as Simeon, Lucius and 
Manaen. Even on the supposition, therefore, that these 
were the solemnities of Paul's ordination, he was not Epis- 
copally ordained. But, in truth, they had no reference what- 
ever to his ordination. On the authority of his divine com- 
mission, he had already been a preacher for several years. 
It was, not a new appointment, but an appointment to a new 
work, which in no degree helps forward the cause of prela- 
tical ordination.* 23 

We have, indeed, adopted from apostolic usage, a signifi- 
cant, impressive and becoming rite, by which to induct one 
into the sacred office of the ministry. The rite ought al- 
ways to be observed. But no direct precept, no uniform 
usage, gives to this rite the sanction of divine authority ; 
above all, there is not in all the Scriptures, the least author- 
ity for confining the administration of it exclusively to the 
bishop. The idea of a bishop's receiving the Holy Ghost in 
regular succession from the holy apostles, and transmitting 
the heavenly grace to others by the laying on of his hands, 
is a figment of prelatical pride and superstition unauthorized 
in Scripture, and unknown in the earliest ages of the church. 

23 Bowdler's Letters on Apostolical Succession, p. 22. 



144 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

But the historical argument in relation to the subject of or- 
dination by presbyters is considered below. 

The claims of Episcopacy, on the ground of an original 
distinction between the names and titles of bishop and pres- 
byters seem now to be wholly abandoned, even by Episco- 
palians themselves. " Even if Timothy," says the Chris- 
tian Observer, " had been distinctly called bishop of Ephe- 
sus, and Titus bishop of Crete, Episcopalians would build 
nothing on that nomenclature as regards Episcopacy, being 
a distinct order from Presbytery, for presbyters are admitted 
to have been called bishops. The disparity is proved by 
other considerations." 24 

Even the church of Rome acknowledges the identity of 
the orders of presbyter and bishop, and reckons among the 
three greater, or holy orders, those of priest, deacon and 
subdeacon. 

Bishop Onderdonk makes also the same concession. " As 
some readers of this essay may not be familiar with the con- 
troversy, it is proper to advert to the fact, that the name 
' bishops/ which now designates the highest grade of the 
ministry, is not appropriated to that office in Scripture. 
That name is given to the middle order, or presbyters ; and 
all that we read in the New Testament, concerning ' bishops' 
(including, of course, the words ' overseers' and ' oversight,' 
which have the same derivation), is to be regarded as per- 
taining to that middle grade." Bishops and presbyters are 
identical, then, in the Scriptures, according to our American 
bishop, who traces his own descent from a higher grade of 
offices known by no specific name in Scripture, but em- 
bracing the apostles, and Titus and Timothy, and the angels 
of the seven churches who are not honored with any dis- 
tinct, official title. 25 The whole fabric of Episcopacy is here 

21 Christian Observer, 1842, p. 59. 

25 " The highest grade is there found in those called apostles, and 
in some other individuals, as Titus and Timothy, and the angels of 



EQUALITY OF BISHOPS AND PRESBYTERS. 145 

made to rest upon a certain nameless grade, whose succes- 
sors have uncourteously appropriated to themselves exclusive- 
ly an official title which by divine right belonged also to the 
presbyters. The issue of the argument, accordingly, turns 
chiefly upon the proposition which comes next under consid- 
eration. 

4. There was, in the apostolical churches, no ordinary; 
class of ministers superior to that of presbyters or bishops.. 

We deny entirely that Timothy, or Titus, or any other- 
person, or class of persons named in Scripture, represents an 
order of ministers, in the churches planted by the apostles,, 
who were invested with prerogatives superior to those of' 
presbyters; and whose office was to be perpetuated in the- 
church of Christ. In opposition to these Episcopal preten- 
sions, we remark : 

(a) That no distinct appellation is given to the supposed 
order, and no class of religious teachers represents them in: 
the Scriptures. 

If there were such an order, it is surely extraordinary that 
it should have been left without a name, or a distinctive appel- 
lation of any kind. Here is the highest grade of officers pos- 
sessed exclusively of certain ministerial rights and powers, 
from whom all clerical grace has been transmitted by Episco- 
pal succession, age after age, down to the present time ; and 
yet this grade is distinguished by no peculiar appellation, and 
represented by no single class or order of men. The infe- 
rior orders, presbyters and deacons, are specified with great 
distinctness, but the highest and most important of all has no 
definite name, no distinct and single representative. Yet 
the modern bishop, with astonishing credulity traces back his 
spiritual lineage, we had almost said, through a thousand gen- 

the seven churches of Asia, who have no official designation given 
them. It was after the apostolic age that the name ' bishop' was 
taken from the second order and appropriated to the first." — Bishop 
Onderdonh's Episcopacy, tested by Scripture. 

13 



146 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

©rations, in strange uncertainty all the while, to whom he 
shall at last attach himself, or with whom claim kindred. If 
Peter fails him, he flies to Paul, to James, to Timothy, to 
Titus, to the angel of the church, to — he knows not whom. 
He is, however, a legitimate descendant and successor of some 
apostolical bishop. He is sure of that ; but that bishop — 
nobody knows who he is ? or what, precisely, his office may 
have been ! 

(b) We deny that the Scriptures give any authority for 
ascribing to either of the apostles, or to their assistants and 
fellow-laborers, the exercise of Episcopal authority. 

The fathers do indeed concur in assigning Episcopal Sees 
to several of the apostles, and to their helpers. And mod- 
ern Episcopalians refer us with great confidence to James, 
to Timothy, Titus, and to the angels of the churches in the 
epistles of the apocalypse, as instances of primitive bishops. 
Now we deny that either of these exercised the rights and 
prerogatives of an Episcopal bishop. 

(a) James was not bishop of Jerusalem. 

We have already seen 26 with what care the apostles guard- 
ed against any assumption of authority over the churches. 
They taught, they counselled, they administered, they re- 
proved, indeed, with the authority belonging to ambassadors 
of God and ministers of Christ. But they assumed not to 
rule and to govern with the official power of a diocesan. 
The evidence of this position is already before the reader, 
and to his consideration we submit it without further remark. 

But James, it is said, resided at Jerusalem, as bishop of 
that church and diocese ; and, in this capacity, offers us a 
scriptural example of an apostolical bishop. The Episco- 
pal functions of this bishop, therefore, require a particular 
consideration. 

In the days of Claudius Caesar, arose a dearth through- 
out Judea, so distressing that a charitable contribution was 

26 Chapter 1. 



EQUALITY OF BISHOPS AND PRESBYTERS. 147 

made, and relief sent by the hands of Barnabas and Saul, to 
the brethren in Judea, residing in the supposed diocese of 
this bishop of Jerusalem. To whom was this charity sent ? 
Not to the bishop, but to the 'presbyters, the appropriate 
officers of that church, Acts 11: 30. 

A delegation was sent on a certain occasion from Antioch 
to Jerusalem for counsel. They were received, not by the 
bishop, but by the church, the apostles and the presbyters. 
Acts 15: 4. Not a syllable is said of the bishop. The 
council convene to consider the question which has been 
submitted for their decision. Who compose this council? 
The apostles and presbyters, again, without any mention of 
the bishop. After the discussion, in which James with the 
other apostles, naturally bears a prominent part, who act in 
making up the result ? The apostles and presbyters. It 
seemed good to the apostles and presbyters, with all the 
church. Who appear in the salutation of the letter address- 
ed to the church at Antioch ? The apostles, the presbyters 
and the brethren. Mention is again made, Acts 16 : 4, of 
the decrees of this council. Who now appear as the authors 
of these decrees ? The apostles and presbyters. Where 
is our diocesan all this time ? Plainly he has no official 
character ; no existence in this church. The idea of a dio- 
cesan bishop over this community, just now living together 
in the simplicity of their mutual love, is an idle fancy, 
devoid of all reality. Had James been bishop of Jeru- 
salem at this time, he would have acted a conspicuous 
part in all these concerns, as we have seen that the presby- 
ters did. His high office would have given him a place 
vastly more prominent than theirs in all these transactions ; 
whereas they, with the apostles, were the chief actors, as the 
individuals upon whom rested the government of the church 
at Jerusalem. 27 

James appears to have chiefly resided at this city for good 

27 Rothe, Anfange, I. S. 267 seq. 



148 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

and sufficient reasons, but not at all to have remained there 
as the prelatical head of that church or diocese. The holy 
city was the seat of the Christian religion ; and, to the 
apostles, the centre of their operations. It was the church 
to which all referred, as did the church at Antioch, as they 
might have occasion, for counsel, instruction and support. 
What more natural than that one of the twelve should re- 
main, as the representative of the college of the apostles, to 
give direction to their operations and their councils 1 And for 
this important trust, James, one of the kindred of our Lord 
according to the flesh, from his youth a Nazarene, intimately 
acquainted with all the national peculiarities and prejudices 
of the Jews, and a blameless and faithful follower of Christ, 
was eminently qualified. The testimony of Hegesippus is 
that " he was holy from his mother's womb," that on ac- 
count of his eminent righteousness he was styled the Just. 
He represents the Scribes and Pharisees as saying to him, 
" We all put our confidence in thee ; and we, and all the 
people, bear thee witness that thou art just, and respectest 
not the person of any man." 28 James the Just, then, re- 
mained at Jerusalem, as the delegate of the college of the 
apostles, and the honored counsellor and adviser of the 
churches, but with no pretensions to diocesan or prelatical 
authority over them. 

As a Jew, as the brother of our Lord, as well as by the 
amiable characteristics mentioned above, he was eminently 
qualified to serve as mediator between the opposite parties of 
Jewish and Gentile converts ; and to counsel, and to act for 
the peace of the church. But in all this he acted, not as a 
bishop, but as an apostle, in that divine character, and by 
that authority, which he possessed as an apostle of the Lord 
Jesus Christ, and which, as Neander has well observed, could 
be delegated to none other. 29 

28 Euseb. Eccl. Hist. Lib. 2. c. 23. 

2 9 Introduction, p. 19. Also, Apost. Kirch. 2, c. 1. p. 14 seq. 



EQUALITY OF BISHOPS AND PRESBYTERS. 149 

But do not Clement of Alexandria, 30 Hegesippus, 31 the 
Apostolical Constitutions, 32 Eusebius, 33 Cyril of Jerusalem, 34 
Epiphanius, 35 Chrysostom, 36 Jerome, 37 Augustine, 38 and many 
others of later date, all agree that James was bishop of Jeru- 
salem? Grant it all. We admit that these all describe him 
as bishop of Jerusalem. And are you not yet satisfied that 
James was bishop of this parent church 1 No, by no means. 
Their declaration only relates to a disputed point in the his- 
tory of the Acts of the Apostles, upon which we, perhaps, 
are as competent to decide as they. With the same histori- 
cal data in view, why cannot a judgment be made upon them 
as safely in the nineteenth century as in the third or the fifth ? 
With what propriety these ancient fathers denominate James 
bishop of Jerusalem, let the reader himself judge in view of 
the foregoing considerations. 

But Hegesippus lived in the second century, within one 
hundred years of the apostolic age, and must be an unexcep- 
tionable witness. What then is his testimony 1 Simply that 
he took charge of the church in connection with the apostles, 
for such must the term perd imply, if it means anything. 
This use of this preposition, however, is not common, and 
the authenticity of the passage is doubtful, diads^stai ds — 
rijv iy.xlijGiav \izta rav aonGtolcav. He remained chiefly 
at Jerusalem, the centre of operations for all of the apostles, 
and had, if you please, the immediate supervision of this 

30 Euseb. Eccl. Hist. 2. c. 1. 

31 Euseb. Eccl. Hist. 2. c. 23. 

32 Lib. 6. Ep. 14. p. 346. 

33 Lib. 2. c. 1. 2. c. 23. 3. c. 5. 7. c. 19. Comment, in Hesai. 17: 5. 
Vol. II. p. 422. Montfaucon, Collec. Nov. Pat. et Scrip. Graec. ed. 
Paris, 1706. 

34 Catech. 4. Ep. 23. p. 65. ed. Touttee. 

35 Haer. 78. Antidicomarianitar. § 5. p. 1039. 

36 Horn. 38, in Ep. ad Corinth, Vol. X. p. 355. 

37 Catal. Script. Eccl. s. v. Jacob, frater Domini, Vol. I. p. 170. 
Comment, in Ep. ad Gal. 1: 19. Vol. IX. p. 128. 

38 Contra literas Petiliani, L. 2. c. 51. § 118. Vol. IX. p. 172. 

13* 



150 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

church in connection with the other apostles. Aside from 
the Scriptures, therefore, nothing appears from this writer to 
show that he exercised the independent authority of bishop 
over the church. After the rise of the hierarchy, the Epis- 
copal fathers that have been mentioned, may have interpreted 
the testimony of this author into a declaration of the Epis- 
copal office of James. If so, we are at liberty to challenge 
the authority of these fathers on the point under considera- 
tion. Like them we have the historical record before us, 
and the means of forming an independent opinion. 39 

Indeed, antiquity itself, in the language of Milton, " hath 
turned over the controversy to that sovereign book which 
we had fondly straggled from." After refuting other tradi- 
tions, he adds, " as little can your advantage be from Hege- 
sippus, an historian, of the same time, not extant, but cited 
by Eusebius. His words are, ' that in every city all things 
so stood in his time as the law and the prophets, and our 
Lord did preach.' If they stood so, then stood not bishops 
above presbyters. For what our Lord and his disciples 
taught, God be thanked, we have no need to go learn of 
him."* 

The churches, as we have already seen, were at this time 
entirely independent. They had no confederate relations 
with each other. Each was composed of any number of be- 
lievers associated together by common consent, for the en- 
joyment of the word and ordinances of their common Lord. 
Besides their union of faith and fellowship of spirit, they 
had one bond of union in the instruction, care and oversight 
which the apostles exercised in common over all the churches. 
This general supervision the apostles exercised conjointly, 
and thus formed a common bond of connection between 
the different fraternities ; going themselves, from place to 
place, confirming the churches, and reporting to each the 

3 9 Rothe, Anfange der Christ. Kirch. I. 263—272. 
4fi Prose Works, Vol. 1. p. 86. 



EQUALITY OF BISHOPS AND FRESBYTERS. 151 

faith and piety of such as they had visited. What care the 
apostle Paul took to encourage this fellowship of the churches, 
is manifested in the salutations which he sends in their be- 
half. All the churches in Christ salute you, Rom. 16: 16. 
The churches of Asia salute you. All the brethren greet you, 
1 Cor. 16: 19, 20. 

Under these circumstances, the churches severally refer- 
red to the apostles, for instruction, for counsel, and for as- 
sistance, as they might have occasion. This oversight the 
apostles constantly exercised ; caring for all, and watching 
for all, as they had opportunity, that thus they might, as far 
as possible, supply the place of their Lord, and fulfil the 
ministry which they had received from him. In the distri- 
bution of their labors, by mutual consent, they occupied, 
to a great extent, separate fields. Some went to the hea- 
then, and others to the circumcision, Gal. 2: 7 — 9. But 
none had any prescribed field of labor, bearing the remotest 
analogy to a modern diocese. Paul was greatly oppressed 
by the care of all the churches, which came daily upon him. 
Who is weak and I am not weak? Who is offended and 
I burn not? 2 Cor. 11: 29. So that while each may have 
been the apostle of particular churches, each and every one 
exercised a common oversight and jurisdiction over all, by 
whomsoever they might have been originally organized. 
Nor was this jurisdiction of the several apostles exercised by 
them on their own individual responsibility, but in common 
rather, as fellow-apostles and co-workers, for the building up 
of the church of Christ, and the extension of his kingdom. 
In a word, the government of the churches was vested in the 
apostles, not individually, but collectively ; and each exercised 
his authority as a joint member of the apostolical body, who 
were ordained and endowed with grace to be witnesses of 
the gospel of our Lord in every place, " for the perfecting 
of the saints, for the work of the ministry, for the edification 



152 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

of the body of Christ." Such are the views of Rothe, 41 one 
of the latest writers on this subject, who has set forth his 
sentiments with great clearness, and supported them with 
unequalled learning and ability. Such also are the senti- 
ments of Chrysostom, an ancient and learned bishop. " The 
apostles were constituted of God rulers, not over a separate 
nation or city, but all were entrusted with the world." 42 

(|3) Timothy at Ephesus was not a bishop. 

Timothy was one of a class of religious teachers who act- 
ed as the assistants and fellow-laborers of the apostle. Their 
assistance was employed as a necessary expedient, to enable 
the apostles to exercise their supervision over the infant 
churches which sprang up in the different and distant coun- 
tries through which Christianity was propagated. Over 
churches, widely separated, the apostles could personally ex- 
ercise but little supervision. The great apostle of the Gen- 
tiles, had been instrumental in planting many churches in 
distant countries. He saw the necessity of employing suit- 
able and competent men, who might supply his lack of ser- 
vice to those churches which lay beyond the range of his 
immediate inspection. They were neither permanent offi- 
cers in the church, nor restricted to any specific circuit, but 
temporary residents, to assist in setting in order the churches, 
and giving needful instructions, as the occasion might re- 
quire, and then to pass away to any other station, where their 
services might be required. 

Such assistants and delegates of the apostles are of fre- 
quent occurrence in the Scriptures. And this view of their 
office affords, at once, a natural and easy explanation of the 
peculiar and somewhat anomalous rank which they seem to 
have held. Bishops they certainly were not, in the Episco- 

41 Anfknge, Christ. Kirch. I. S. 297—310. 

42 *Eig\v vtto &sov xtiQorovif&h'Ttg utcootoXoi aqyovtzg, ova l&vt] 
xdl tzoXsls diacpdqovg Xafi^dvovxtg, dXld itdvxeg xoivfj r^v oixovfii- 
vrjv efi-JiLGTiv&ivreg. — Cited by Campbell, Lectures, p. 77. 



EQUALITY OF BISHOPS AND PRESBYTERS. 153 

copal sense of that term. 43 Neither were they merely pres- 
byters ; for, though in many respects their office was analo- 
gous to that of presbyters, in others it was widely different. 
Such was Timothy, whom Paul styles his fellow-laborer, av- 
VEQyog. Rom. 16: 21. 1 Thess. 3: 2. In the salutations of 
his epistles, also, he often couples the name of Timothy with 
his own. Phil. 1: 1. I Thess. 1: 1. 2 Thess. 1: 1, etc. Ac- 
cordingly, Timothy appears to have been the travelling com- 
panion of the apostle. 

He seems, indeed, at different times, to have had the su- 
perintendence of several churches in various places. Comp. 
1 Cor. 4: 17. 1 Tim. 1: 3, and 1 Thess. 3: 2, from which it 
appears that he was sent to Corinth, to Ephesus, and to Thes- 
salonica, as a fellow-laborer and assistant of the apostle. 
From what is said of his influence at Corinth, it would 
seem that he might, with almost equal propriety, be styled 
the bishop of that city as of Ephesus. In the first epistle, 
he is reputed to have been sent to them, as the representative 
of the apostle, to bring them into remembrance of his ways 
and doctrines ; and, in the second, he unites with Paul as his 
brother in the salutation of that church. The whole history 
of the Acts of the Apostles, and indeed the language of the 
epistles proves that, like the other fellow-travellers of St. 
Paul, Timothy had no settled abode, no fixed station ; but 
assisted him, as an evangelist, in setting the churches in or- 
der, and in the accomplishment of any special object which 
the apostle had in view, aud to which he could not personally 
attend. The apostle, often coupling the name of Timothy 
with his own, presents him to us as his companion and assis- 
tant. This itinerating life of Timothy sufficiently proves 
that he was not the bishop of Ephesus. When both the 
epistles to the Thessalonians were written, A. D. 62, Timo- 
thy was with Paul at Corinth, having lately returned from 

43 Bishop Onderdonk only claims this distinction for Timothy, and 
many others of that communion give up this point. 



154 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

Thessalonica, where he had spent some time in ministering 
to that church. 

When Paul wrote the first epistle to the Corinthians, A. D. 
57, from Ephesus, Timothy was absent again, on a mis- 
sion to Macedonia and Achaia, from whence he was expected 
soon to return. 1 Cor. 16: 10. Titus also went about this 
time on a mission to Corinth. . 

The year following, when Paul wrote his second epistle 
from Macedonia, Timothy was with him there, and Titus, 
whom Paul had met in Macedonia, was again one of the 
messengers by whom the letter was forwarded to the church. 

Some months later, A. D. 58, when he wrote his epistle to 
the Romans from Corinth, Timothy was with him there. 

The epistle to the Ephesians was written from Rome, 
A. D. 61, subsequently to the time when Timothy is alleged 
to have been made bishop of Ephesus ; yet he is not named 
in it, nor is there any allusion in it to any head of the church 
there. The address is only to " the saints and faithful breth- 
ren." Indeed, it is certain, from the epistles to the Colos- 
sians and to Philemon, written about the same time from 
Rome, that Timothy was, at this time, in that city ; so that 
he could scarcely have been in his supposed diocese at all. 

"The expression in 1 Tim. 1: 3, ' As I besought thee to 
abide still at Ephesus when I went into Macedonia,' seems 
to mark but a temporary purpose, and to bear little simili- 
tude to a settled appointment and establishment of him as 
head of the church there, i. e. bishop, in the modern accept- 
ation of the term, resembling rather his previous mission to 
Thessalonica. referred to in the epistle to the Thessalonians 
(3: 2) ; and this is confirmed by the undoubted fact, that 
when the second epistle to him was written, not only was 
Timothy not in his supposed diocese at Ephesus, but the apos- 
tle tells him that he had sent Tychicus there, who is spoken of 
by the apostle as being in like manner a fellow-servant, beloved 
brother, and fellow minister of the Lord (Ephes. 6: 21), as 



EQUALITY OF BISHOPS AND PRESBYTERS. 155 

Timothy himself was. This we know to have been shortly 
before the death of the apostle." 44 The absurdity of sup- 
posing that this request was made to Timothy as bishop, is 
forcibly presented by Daille. " Why beseech a bishop to re- 
main in his diocese? Is it not to beseech a man to stay in 
a place to which he is bound? I should not think it strange 
to beseech him to leave it, if his services were needed else- 
where. But to beseech him to abide in a place where his 
charge obliges him to be, and which he cannot forsake with- 
out offending God and neglecting his duty, is, to say the 
truth, not a very civil entreaty ; as it plainly pre-supposes 
that he has not his duty much at heart, seeing one is under 
the necessity of beseeching him to do it." 45 

By the imposition of hands he was endowed with peculiar 
gifts, which qualified him to serve the churches as a fellow- 
laborer with the apostle, who accordingly charges him not to 
neglect this gift. 46 

But what need of many words on this subject? The 
apostle, just before his death, and long after he is supposed 
to have constituted Timothy bishop at Ephesus, gives him his 
true designation, — an Evangelist, " Do the work," not of 
bishop, but " of an evangelist." The work which he was 
exhorted to do was simply that of a " person who, being at- 
tached to no particular church, was sent by the apostle as 
was necessary, either for the purpose of founding new church- 
es, or of confirming those which were already established." 47 

44 Bowdler's Letters on Apost. Succession, pp. 25, 26. 

45 Daille, ci-dessus, p. 23. Cited in Mason's Works, Vol. III. p. 
197. 

46 Comp. Neander, Apost. Kirch. 1. c. 10. Rothe, Anfange, I. 
S. 160, 161, and 263; also, J. H. Bohmer, Diss. Jur. Eccl. Antiq. 
p. 424 seq., where is given an able discussion of the points under 
consideration, in relation to Timothy, Titus, and the angel of the 
churches. Barnes's Apost. Church, pp. 99 — 107, and Smyth's Pres- 
bytery and Prelacy, chap. 12. § 3. 

47 Beausobre, quoted by Mant and d'Ogly, on Acts 21: 8. 



156 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

(y) Titus was not bishop of Crete. 

Like Timothy, Titus was an evangelist. He received 
similar instructions and performed similar labors. Like 
Timothy, he also travelled too much to be regarded as having 
been a stationary prelate. From Syria we trace him to Je- 
rusalem ; thence to Corinth; thence to Macedonia ; back 
again to Corinth ; thence to Crete ; thence to Dalmatia ; and 
whether he ever returned to Crete is wholly uncertain. He 
was left at Crete, therefore, not as bishop of that diocese, 
but as an assistant of the apostle, to establish the churches, 
and to continue the work which the apostle had begun. 
" After Paul had laid the foundation of the Christian church 
in Crete," says Neander, " he left Titus behind, to complete 
the organization of the churches, to confirm the new con- 
verts in purity of doctrine, and to counterwork the influence 
of the false teachers." 48 

From all this there appears to be no scriptural foundation 
for considering Timothy to. have been established as bishop 
of Ephesus, or Titus as bishop of Crete. Dr. Whitby, him- 
self a zealous advocate of Episcopacy, assures us that he 
could find nothing in any writer of the first three centuries 
concerning the Episcopate of Timothy and Titus ; nor any 
intimation that they bore the name of bishops. "Certain it 
is," says Campbell, also, " that in the first three centuries, 
neither Timothy nor Titus is styled bishop by any writer." 
Titus journeyed much with Paul, and was left in Crete, like 
Timothy at Ephesus, to render in behalf of the apostles, a 
a similar service to the churches on that island. 

Of the same general character, also, was Silvanus, 1 
Thess. 1: 1. 2 Thess. 1: 1. Comp. 1 Pet. 5: 12; and Mark, 
Col. 4: 10. 1 Pet. 5: 13; and Clemens, Phil. 4: 3, and seve- 
ral others. Silas is first the companion of Paul and Barna- 
bas in Asia Minor ; then of Paul, in his second missionary 
tour through Asia Minor, Macedonia, and Achaia; and, at a 

« Apost. Kirch. Vol. I. p. 405. 



EQUALITY OF BISHOPS AND PRESBYTERS. 157 

later period, of Peter in the Parthian empire. Mark, too, was 
first the companion of Paul and Barnabas ; then, after their 
separation, of Barnabas in Cyprus; and afterwards of Peter 
in the Parthian empire, from whence, also, they journeyed in 
company to Rome. 

No one of the apostles, therefore, nor Timothy, nor Titus, 
nor any of the evangelists, acted in the capacity of bishop of 
any church or diocese. In neither has this higher order any 
representation ; from the office of neither can any argument 
be derived in support of the prelatical doctrine of Episcopal 
supremacy and apostolical succession. 49 

(8) The angel of the church in the apocalyptic epistles 
was not a bishop. 

On this subject, we shall present the reader with the expo- 
sition of several distinguished scholars, and submit it to him, 
whether this phraseology supports the prelatical claims of 
Episcopacy. The views of Neander are briefly given in his 
Introduction. 50 

By the kindness of Prof. Stuart, we here offer the follow- 
ing exposition from his unpublished commentary on The Rev- 
elation : 

" The seven angels have given occasion to much specula- 
tion and diversity of opinion. Are they teachers, bishops, 
overseers ? or is some other office designated by the word 
ayyelog, angel, here? 

1. " Old Testament usage ; viz. the later Hebrew employs 
the word T^i2=^ciyyelog , to designate a prophet. Hag. 1: 
13, also a priest. Mai. 2: 7, and Eccl. 5: 6. As priests, 
in the appropriate sense of the word, did not exist in the 
Christian churches (for they had no Mosaic ritual of sacri- 
fices and oblations), so we must compare ayyelog here with 
^>?b73, prophet, in Hag. 1: 13. IlQocpiJTai, prophets, there 
were in the* Christian church. See 1 Cor. 12: 28. Acts 13: 

49 Comp. Rothe, Anfange, 1. S. 305 seq. 50 Page 21. 

14 



158 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

1. 1 Cor. 14: 29, 32, 37. Eph. 2: 20. 3: 5. 4: 11. Taken 
in this sense, the word designates here the leading teacher in 
the Asiatic churches. The nature of the case would seem 
to indicate a leader here, else why should he be especially 
addressed as the representative of the whole body in each of 
the Christian churches? But, 

2. " Another exposition has been given. Vitringa 51 has 
compared the ayyslog of the apocalypse with the "1*132 tvbp 
of the Jewish synagogues, which means legatus ecclesiae 
[the representative or delegate of the church'], and compares 
well with ayyelog exxlrjaiag [angel of the church], as to the 
form of the phrase. The office of the individual thus named 
was to superintend and conduct the worship of the syna- 
gogue; i. e. he recited prayers, and read the Scriptures, or 
invited others to perform these duties; he called on the 
priests to pronounce the final benediction, in case he him- 
self was not a priest; he proclaimed the sacred feasts, and, 
in a word, he superintended the whole concerns of reli- 
gious worship, and evidently took the lead in them himself. 
He was a TiQQSGiojg, or an ln'i6v.onog [a superintendent or 
overseer], and also a diduGxcclog, teacher, in a greater or less 
degree. Comp. John 3: 10. The best account of his office 
is in Schoettgen, Horae Heb. p. 1089 seq., who has pointed 
out some errors and deficiencies of Vitringa. The nature 
of the case shows that the superior officer is, in this instance, 
and should be, addressed. He is probably called the angel 
of the church, in conformity to the Hebrew Chaldee t-pb'li 
11 22 (possibly in reference to Hag. 1: 13, or Mai. 2: 7), and 
may be called legatus ecclesiae, because he is delegatus ab 
ecclesia [delegated by the church], in order that he may 
render their public devotions to God, and superintend their 
social worship. Exactly the limits of the office and its spe- 

51 De Vet. Synagoga. p. 910 seq. As an interpretation of the He- 
brew phrase, -$33 rvV:), the English reader may read, as often as it 
occurs, the ruler of the synagogue. 



EQUALITY OF BISHOPS AND PRESBYTERS. 159 

cific duties neither the word, ayyelog, explains, nor does 
the context give us any particular information." 

The learned Origen affirms, that the angels of the churches 
were the TTooeaTcozeg, the presiding presbyters, the same of 
whom Justin, Tertullian, and Clemens Alexandrinus speak, 
in the extracts which are given below, in their order. 52 

The exposition given below is from the learned Dr. De- 
litzsch, of Leipsic, the associate of Dr. Fiirst, in preparing 
his Hebrew Concordance. The writer is himself a man of 
profound erudition in all that relates to Hebrew and Rab- 
binical literature, and has furnished the article for us at our 
paiticular request. 

"The ayyeXoi rtjg ixxXqaiag, angels of the churches, are 
the bishops; or, what in my opinion is the same in the 
apostolical churches, the presbyters of the churches. The 
expression, like many others in the New Testament, is de- 
rived from the synagogue, which may be regarded as the 
parent source of the Christian church, having remained es- 
sentially unchanged for a long time after the overthrow of 
the temple service. The office of the ^-ISEE FpJ:3J corre- 
sponds entirely with that of bishop or presbyter of the apos- 
tolical churches. 

1. " The "ns^ n^rti; bears this name as the delegatus 
ecclesiae, the delegate of the church, who was elected by 
them to exercise and enjoy the privileges and prerogatives 
of a presiding officer in their assemblies. It was his duty 
to pray in the name of the assembly, to lead in the reading 
of the Scriptures, to blow the trumpet, the -iDld, on the 
opening of a new year ; and, in the absence of those who 
belonged to the priesthood, the DPan'3, to pronounce the 
Aaronitic benediction. So far as the performance of this 
rite is concerned, the priests themselves are the "TiaS "'h^bip. 

52 Ugotarohag rii'dg row e xxXyoioiv ayytXovs Xtysod'cu Tragd tw \Zto- 
avvi] iv rr/ uTtoxukvipti. — De Orat. § 34. 



160 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

The original passages are given by Schoettgen. 53 So high 
and important was the office of this "Viasz JVbwS, and so 
nearly did it correspond with that of bishop or presbyter, that 
the name of the former might be applied to the latter. 

"The signification of the term may also be learned from 
the Aramaean term, the ttn^n^. This officer of the syna- 
gogue, the n=13"4 frV^> was regarded as bringing before 
God the prayers of the people, which were considered as 
their spiritual offerings. It appears from the Jerusalem 
Talmud, that when one was invited to ascend the pulpit to 
offer public prayers, the language of the invitation was not 
1 Come and pray,' but ' Come hither, and present our offer- 
ing,' OTanp, rtfcjE*-. 54 

" The office of the TVffiSfc TV'P did not, indeed, include 
the duty of a public teacher; for the office of public preach- 
ing was not established as a permanent institution, but had 
its origin within the period of the Christian dispensation. 

" I have thus shown that the appellation, angel of the 
church, was used to designate the presiding officer of the 
Christian church, with particular reference to the -i^ast ri^tp, 
of the synagogue. Still, as a name of an office, the angel 
of the church may have a meaning somewhat higher. Such 
a meaning it may have, with reference, retrospectively, to 
the Hirr -ftfbtt of the Old Testament. 55 So that the 
angel of the church may, at the same time, denote the bish- 
op or presbyter chosen by this Christian community, to be 
the messenger, or servant, both of God and of the church. 
This call of the church is itself a vocatio divina, a divine 
calling ; and, according to the New Testament view of the 
subject, unites the idea of both offices in the same person." 

Bengel, also, the most learned expositor of the book of 

53 Horae Hebraicae et Talmudicae ad Apoc. 1. p. 1089 seq. 

54 JBerachot, c. 4. f. 206. Comp. Zunz, Die gottesdienstlichen 
Vortrage der Juden. 

55 Comp. Malachi 2: 7, and Haggai 1: 13. 



EQUALITY OF BISHOPS AND PRESBYTERS. 161 

Revelation, is of opinion, that the angel of the church cor- 
responds to the -I s ) as rpbu3, of the synagogue. "The He- 
brews had, in their synagogue, a ^nz^ FP^US a deputatum ec- 
clesiae, who, in reading, in prayer, etc., led the congregation; 
and such a leader, also, had each of the seven churches of 
the Apocalypse." 56 

The result is, that the angel of the churches, whatever 
view we take of the origin of the term, was not the repre- 
sentative of an order or grade superior to presbyters, but was 
himself merely a presbyter ; or, if you please, a bishop, — 
provided you mean by it simply what the Scriptures always 
mean, — the pastor of a church, the ordinary and only minis- 
ter. The New Testament never recognizes more than one 
church in a city. This fact of itself precludes the supposition 
that the angel of the church could have been a diocesan 
having in the same city several churches under his authority. 

II. It remains to consider the historical argument for the 
original equality and identity of bishops and presbyters. 

This equality and identity was fully recognized in the ear- 
ly church, and continued to be acknowledged as an historical 
fact, even after the establishment of the hierarchy, down to 
the time of the Reformation. The historical argument com- 
prised in this proposition may be resolved into several par- 
ticulars, each of which serves to show that both the early 
fathers and later historians regarded presbyters and bishops 
as belonging originally to the same grade or order of the 
clergy, and as being equal in their rights and privileges. 

1. Presbyters are designated by names and titles similar 
to those of bishops. 

56 Erklarte OfFenbarung, S. 216. For a further illustration of 
the opinions of the learned, the reader is referred to Campbell's Lec- 
tures on Eccl. Hist. pp. 82—88. Whately, Kingdom of Christ, pp. 
246—250. 

14* 



162 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

2. Presbyters, like bishops, are carefully distinguished 
from the deacons, the second order of the clergy ; and in 
such a manner as to show that both presbyters and bishops 
are indiscriminately and equally the representatives of the 
iirst order. 

3. Presbyters were understood to possess the right to or- 
dain ; and, generally, to perform all the functions of the 
Episcopal office. 

4. Bishops, themselves, in their ministerial character, ex- 
ercised only the jurisdiction, and performed merely the offi- 
ces, of presbyters in the primitive churches. 

5. The original equality of bishops and presbyters contin- 
ued to be acknowledged, from the rise of the Episcopal hie- 
rarchy down to the time of the Reformation. 

1. Presbyters are designated in the writings of the early 
fathers by names and titles similar to those of bishops. 

When from the Scriptures we turn to the writings of these 
fathers, it is observable that they speak sometimes of bishops 
and sometimes of presbyters as the presiding officers of the 
church, and then again of both indiscriminately, as being 
one and the same in rank. To ,both they ascribe the same 
or similar names and titles, such as seniors, elders, chair- 
men, moderators, presidents, etc., all indicating identity of 
office, and equality in rank. Even when the first place is 
assigned to the bishop, he is only chief among equals, just 
as in a modern presbytery or association, one is promoted to 
the office of moderator, to which all are alike eligible. 57 

2. Presbyters, like bishops, are carefully distinguished 
from the deacons, the second order of the clergy and in such 
a manner as to show that both presbyters and bishops are 
indiscriminately and equally the representatives of the first 
order. 

87 We have brought together in parallel columns some of the 
names and titles which are ascribed to bishops and presbyters sever- 



EQUALITY OF BISHOPS AND PRESBYTERS. 163 

Several of the earliest fathers distinctly recognize but two 
orders of the priesthood. Those of the first order are some- 
times denominated presbyters, sometimes bishops, and then 
again bishops and presbyters indiscriminately. It is worthy 
of particular notice, that while bishops and presbyters are 
confounded one with another, they are uniformly distinguish- 
ed from the deacons, the second order of the priesthood. 
Whatever be the title by which the clergy of the first order 

ally. The intelligent reader will readily perceive the similarity of 
the titles given to both, and the identity of their significations. 

TITLES OF BISHOPS. TITLES OF PRESBYTERS. 

EjTIGXOTTOI, 7T(l£0{?VT£()Ol, 7VQO- ' 'E7110X07VOI* 7T(l£oftvT£Q0l,i 7CQ0- 

soqoi, TTQOiGrdfievoij i'cfOQOt ag- £§qoi,+ nQOsaronsg^ nqogxdxai, || 
yovveg ixxXijaiwv, Trpoeorwrsg. 

Praesides, praepositi ;. praesi- Praepositi, antistites, majores 
dentes, superattendentes, superin- natu, seniores, seniores plebis, 
tendentes, pastores, patres eccle- sacerdotes, etc. 
siae, vicarii, praesules, antistites, 
antistites sacrorum, seniores, etc. 

These and several other titles are given in the author's Antiquities, 
pp. 70, 94; in Riddle, Christ. Antiq. pp. 161, 229; in Baumgarten, 
Erllluterungen, S. 75, 94 ; and in Rheinwald, S. 30, 45. Obvious- 
ly the titles of both are synonymous, and are applied indiscriminately 
to both bishops and presbyters, to denote one and the same office. 
Riddle, Christ. Antiq. p. 230. Blondell justly remarks, that " the 
use of such terms creates no difficulty, and for the reason that, even 
after a distinction was made between bishops and presbyters in the 
second century by the decision of the churches, both continued to be 
distinguished indiscriminately by the same appellation." — Apologia 
pro Hitron. p. 92. 

Riddle also allows " that the terms, ini'oy.oTTOs and 7rQso@vTSQog, in 
the New Testament are synonymous, and denote one and the same 
office;" and cites several passages, to some of which reference is 
made above. 



* Chrysost. Horn. 1. in Phil. I. p. 8. Horn. 2. in 1 Tim. 3. Theodoret, in Phil. 
1: 1. 2: 25. Jerome, ad Tit. 1. and Ep. 83, 85. 
t Greg. Naz. Oral. I. Basil, Reg. Morali, 71. 
t Synesius Ep. 12. 

Q Greg. Naz. Orat. I. Basil, M. Regula Morali. 
|| Chrysost. Horn. 11, in 1 Tim. 4. Comp. Rom. 12: 8. 



164 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

are called, we are in no danger of mistaking them for the 
second. 

Clement of Rome, who wrote about A. D. 96, is our 
first authority. His epistle addressed to the Corinthians, is 
the earliest and most authentic of all the writings of the 
apostolical fathers. It was held in such esteem by the early 
Christians, that it was publicly read in their religious assem- 
blies, in the same manner as the apostolical epistles. 58 And, 
by ecclesiastical writers generally, nothing that is not divine 
is admitted to be of higher authority. This revered father 
recognizes but two orders of the priesthood, bishops and 
deacons, im<5y.bnovq xai diaxovovg. He gives not the least 
intimation of the existence of an individual diocesan bishop 
at Corinth ; but uniformly speaks of the presbyters of that 
church, whom the Corinthians had rejected, as belonging to 
the highest order. " The apostles preaching in countries 
and cities, appointed the first fruits of their labors to be 
bishops and deacons, having proved them by the Spirit." 59 
These are the two orders of the ministry, as originally ap- 
pointed by the apostles. " It were a grievous sin," he pro- 
ceeds to say, " to reject those who have faithfully fulfilled 
the duties of their Episcopal office," and immediately adds, 
"blessed are those pres by ters, who have finished their course 
and entered upon their reward," 60 i. e., blessed are those 
presbyters who have thus faithfully performed the duties of 
their Episcopal office ; bishops and presbyters being used in- 
terchangeably as equally descriptive of the same order. 
This passage establishes the identity of bishops and presby- 

53 Euseb. EccJ. Hist. Lib. 3. c. 13. 

59 Kara yoigag ovv xai TtoXsig xrjQvGGOvreg xa&ioravov rag anag%dg 
avToiv, Soxifidoavreg rw Trvsi'fxari, tig eniGXCTCovg xal utaxvvovg xwv 
fitXXovrujv TriGTSi'stv. — E])ist. ad Cor. § 42. p. 57. 

60 c ^4juaQTia ydo ov juixgd 7j/lup I'otcu, idv rovg d/j-tfinrojg xai ooi'ojg 
TTQOOtvtyxovTag id doiga rijg £7tiGX07rfjg a7ro^a?Mptv. Maxd- 
oioi oi 7T(jooSoi7roQfjoavT£g 7tQ£O^vT£Q0i, o'lrivtg tyxao-jTOV xai 
rtXeiav loyov rrv avdlvoiv. — Epist. ad Cor. § 44. p. 58. 



EQUALITY OF BISHOPS AND PRESBYTERS. 165 

ters in the opinion of this venerable author, who may be un- 
derstood to express the prevailing opinion both at Rome and 
at Corinth. The epistle proceeds on the evident assumption, 
that both held the same ministerial office, and sustained the 
same relations to the people. He is remonstrating with the 
Corinthians for expelling certain presbyters from their bish- 
opric, ano zrjg imaxonrjg. " Clement himself," says Riddle, 
" was not even aware of the distinction between bishops and 
presbyters — terms which in fact he uses as synonymous." 61 

Polycarp is our next witness. This father was familiar 
with those who had seen our Lord. He was the disciple of 
John the apostle, and is supposed by many to be the angel 
of the church at Smyrna, in Rev. 2: 8. Such was the re- 
spect in which his epistle was held by the primitive Chris- 
tians, that it was publicly read in their churches until the 
fourth century. This valuable relic of antiquity, the date of 
which is usually assigned to the year 140, harmonizes in a 
remarkable degree with that of Clement, in recognizing but 
two orders of the clergy. 62 The first it denominates presby- 
ters. Bishops are not once named in all the epistle. These 
presbyters are represented as the inspectors and rulers of 
the church, having authority to administer its discipline, and 
to exercise all the functions of its highest officers. Nor is 
there the least intimation that any one has authority superior 
to theirs. 

As the author of the epistle, and apparently the presiding 
elder, the nQoeGtajg of the church, Polycarp opens the letter 
with the usual Christian salutation to the church whom he ad- 
dresses, coupled with that of his fellow-presbyters. " Poly- 
carp and the presbyters with him, to the church of God 
dwelling at Philippi, mercy to you, and peace be multiplied 

61 Christ. Antiq. p. 5. Comp. Waddington's Church Hist., p. 35. 
Campbell's Lectures, p. 7*2. 

62 Jio Seov a-Jiiy&G&ai, ano itdvxoiv tovtojv vTCOTaooo/uivovg roTg 
7rQ6ofivTtQOi$ kcci diazovois otg Qsal xal Xqigtoj. — Ad. Phil. c. 6. 



166 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 






from God Almighty, and the Lord Jesus Christ our Saviour." 
Paul in his salutation addressess the bishops and deacons of 
this church. Polycarp in his, speaks only of presbyters and 
deacons. If there were three orders of clergy at Philippi, 
the omission of one by the apostle, and another by this apos- 
tolical father is unaccountable. The advice of Polycarp to 
the church " to be subject to the presbyters and deacons," 
becomes particularly irrelevant and improper, on the suppo- 
sition, that the government of the church was vested in a 
bishop. The conclusion, therefore, is inevitable, that bishop 
and presbyter were still used interchangeably ; and that both 
Paul and Polycarp speak of the same class of officers. 
Clement and Polycarp were contemporaries and survivors 
of the apostles. They resided, the one at Rome ; the other, 
in Asia Minor. They represent distinct portions of the 
Christian church, remote from each other, and widely dif- 
ferent in language, in government, and in national peculiari- 
ties. The ecclesiastical polity of these four churches may 
fairly be assumed as an example of the usage of others at 
this time. So far as we can ascertain from the writings of 
these fathers, no office existed in the churches either of 
Rome, Corinth, Smyrna, or Philippi, superior to that of 
presbyter ; nor is there any indication of diversity of order, 
degree, ordination, or power, between the several presbyters 
or bishops of those churches ; save that of senior or mod- 
erator, the 7ZQ0£6zc6g of their body. 

It is also particularly noticeable, that Polycarp specifies 
the qualifications necessary both for deacons, 63 and for pres- 
byters ; 64 and, like Paul, the apostle, on a similar occasion, 
Tit. 1: 5 — 9, makes no mention of what is proper in the 
conduct and character of a bishop. 

Justin Martyr, the Christian philosopher, who suffered 
martyrdom A. D. 165, two years before the death of Poly- 
carp, offers further confirmation of these views of the sub- 



63 



Ep. c. 5. 64 Ep c. 6. 



EQUALITY OF BISHOPS AND PRESBYTERS. 167 

ject. A native of Samaria in Palestine and converted to 
Christianity at Ephesus, he travelled in Egypt and visited 
most of the Christian churches in every part of the Roman 
empire, residing also for a long time at Rome. We may 
therefore expect from him the most exact and certain know- 
ledge of the doctrine and usages of the second century. We 
may be assured that he understood the government and wor- 
ship of the church. That the information which Justin 
gives respecting the christian church was strictly and uni- 
versally true, we have the fullest assurance from the learn- 
ing, the candor and the piety of the author, and from the 
fact that he speaks from personal knowledge as an itinerating 
christian counsellor and teacher. Never himself holdino- 
any clerical office, his relations to the church, his learning, 
his candor, his piety, his extensive travels, and his death, all 
concur to render him an unexceptionable witness. In his 
description of public worship, after mentioning prayers and 
the fraternal salutation, he says, — " There is brought to him 
who presides over the brethren, tty 7Tqozgt(x>ti zav ddeXqjmv, 
bread and a cup of water, and wine ; and he, taking them, 
offers up praise and glory to the Father of the universe, 
through the name of the Son and the Holy Ghost, and ren- 
ders thanks for these, his gifts. At the close of his petition 
and thanksgivings, all the people present say Amen ; which, 
in the Hebrew language, signifies so way it be. And he 
who presides, having given thanks, and the whole assembly 
having expressed their assent, they who are called among us 
deacons, didxovoi, distribute the bread, and the wine, and 
water to each of those who are present, to partake of that 
which has been blessed. Also they carry to those who are 
not present." 65 

65 3 j4§el(f,ol no tvdg tvydg noir/oofisvoi vttIq re eavroiv nal rov 

cpojTiaO'iVTog xai akkwv navrayov iravrvn' tvrovojg dlh'J.ovg 

(piltfuaTi doTTatofie&a nacod/usvoi to)V svyoyv. tTreira Trgogif^trat 

TOi TT^OSGTMTt X U) V « d 6 X (p 0) V UQTOg JCCli TlOT^QtOV vdo.TOC Hal 



168 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

His testimony, in the passage above cited, is that two 
orders only officiated in their public worship and in their 
celebration of the eucharist. Soon after this, he again de- 
scribes their mode of public worship, and of communion, 
and specifies the same officiating officers, the president of 
the brethren, and the deacons. 06 Nothing occurs, either in 
the narrative, or in the distinctive epithet, to indicate any 
higher order or office than that of the officiating presbyter 
who conducted their worship and administered the sacra- 
ment; or if you call him bishop, he is still of the same order, 
distinguished clearly from the deacons, but differing in no 
wise from the order of presbyters. 

Upon the import of this TiQomrwg, of Justin, about which 
so much is said, the following remarks of Milton are worthy 
of particular consideration : — " Now for the word nQoscTcog, 
it is more likely that Timothy never knew the word in that 
sense. It was the vanity of those next succeeding times not 
to content themselves with the simplicity of Scripture phrase, 
but must make a new lexicon to name themselves by; one 
will be called nQoeormg, or antistes, a word of precedence ; 
another would be termed a gnostic, as Clemens ; a third, 
sacerdos, or priest, and talks of altars; which was a plain 
sign that their doctrine began to change, for which they 
must change their expressions. But that place of Justin 
Martyr serves rather to convince the author, than to make 
for him, where the name nQosazmg rwv ddelyajv, the presi- 

ngdaarog, xal ovrog Xafio)v, aivov xal du^ni' rw ttcltqI riiiv blow, did 
tov ovv/uarog tov viov xal tov TrvavtinTog tov ayi'ovj avantfirrti 
Ttal £ v %o.q tor iav vttIo tov ytarrjI^uTwdai tovtojv nay avrov UttI 
ttoXx) it o i sir at . ov cvvtsMonvros rag evy/'-g y.cuTtjv evy/'QioriaVj 
nag 6 7raoo)v laog l^[SV(j/rjp,ht ?Jywv, Afiriv. — sv y/'Qt or tjoavrog (Js tov 
noosoTwrog, y.al i7T6v(fTj/utjoavTog iravrog rov Xaov, ov xslovfisvoi 
nag tj/u'iv S idxovo i _, SiSoaotv txdoTO) t(ov rra^m'Ton' fieraXa^eiv. 
— Jlpol., ]. e. 65up. 82. Comp. Semisch's Justin Martyr. Trans. 
Edinburgh 1843. Vol. I. P p. 28—9. 



o« 



Apol. 1. c. 67. p. 83. 



EQUALITY OF BISHOPS AND PRESBYTERS. 169 

dent or pastor of the brethren (for to what end is he their 
president but to teach them?) cannot be limited to signify a 
prelatical bishop, but rather communicates that Greek appel- 
lation to every ordinary presbyter ; for there he tells what 
the Christians had wont to do in their several congregations, 
to read and expound, to pray and administer, all which he 
says the 7TQ080T0jg, or antistes did. Are these the offices 
only of a bishop, or shall we think that every congregation: 
where these things were done, which he attributes to this; 
* antistes,' had a bishop present among them 1 unless they 
had as many * antistites' as presbyters, which this place rather 
seems to imply ; and so we may infer even from their own 
alleged authority, ' that antistes was nothing else but presby- 
ter.' "67 

Having now passed the middle of the second century, and 
found, thus far, only two orders in the church, we may fairly 
conclude that such was the organization adopted by the 
apostles. This early and uniform usage is a fair exposition 
of their authority and example. But the evidence already 
adduced is corroborated by other authorities. 

Irenaeus, a Greek, of Asia Minor, was in his youth a hear- 
er of the venerable Polycarp, the disciple of John. He spent 
his advanced life in Gaul, at Lyons, and died about the com- 
mencement of the third century, probably A. D. 202, 
Speaking of Marcion, Valentinus, Cerinthus, and other here- 
tics, he says: — " When we refer them to that apostolic tra- 
dition, which is preserved in the churches, through the suc- 
cession of their presbyters, these men oppose the tradition ; 
pretending that, being more wise than, not only the presby- 
ters, but the apostles themselves, they have found the uncor- 
rupted truth." 68 Continuing the same course of reasoning,, 

67 Milton's Prelatical Episcopacy, Prose Works, Vol. I. p. 76. 

68 Cum autem ad earn iterum traditionem, quae est ab Apostolis, 
quae per successiones Presbyter or um in ecclesiis custoditur, pmvoca- 
museos: adversantur traditioni, dicentes, se non solum Preslhjtcris, 

15 



170 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

the author, in the next section, again styles these same pres- 
byters, bishops. " We can enumerate those who were con- 
stituted by the apostles, bishops in the churches ; their suc- 
cessors, also, even down to our time. — But because it would 
be tedious, in such a volume as this, to enumerate the suc- 
cessions in all the churches, showing to you the tradition 
and declared faith of the greatest and most ancient and 
noted church, founded at Rome by the two glorious apostles, 
Peter and Paul, which she received from the apostles, and is 
come to us through the successions of the bishops, we con- 
found all who conclude otherwise than they ought, by what 
means soever they do so." 69 

But the very same traditions and successions, which are 
here ascribed to the bishops, are just above assigned also to 
the presbyters. 

Again, treating of the churches of Smyrna and Ephesus, 
he speaks in a similar connection, of Polycarp, as a bishop ; 
but in another place, he styles him that blessed and apostol- 
ical presbyter, ixelvog 6 paxaQiog v,ai a,7zoGTohy.6g TZQtciftvzs- 
Qog. 70 

Again, " We ought to obey those presbyters in the church, 
who have succession, as we have shown, from the apostles; 

sed etiam Jipostolis exsistentes sapientiores, sinceram invenisse veri- 
tatein. — Irenaeus,Jldv. Haer. L. 3. c. 2. § 2. p. ]75. 

69 Traditionem itaque Apostolorum in toto mundo manifestatam in 
omni ecclesia adest respicere omnibus, qui vera velint videre ; et ha- 
bemus annumerare eos, qui ab Apostolis instituti sunt Episcopi in 
ecclesiis, et successores eorum usque ad nos, qui nihil tale docuerunt, 
neque cognoverunt, quale ab his deliratur. — Sed quoniam valde lon- 
gurn est in hoc tali volumine, omnium ecclesiarum enumerare suc- 
cessiones, maximae et antlquissimae et omnibus cognitae, a glorio- 
sissimis duobus Apostolis Petro et Paulo Romae fundatae et constitu- 
tae ecclesiae earn, quam habet ab Apostolis traditionem et annuntia- 
tam hominibus fidem, per successiones Ep/scoporvm pervenientem 
usque ad nos indicantes, confundimus omnes, etc. — Irenaens, c. 3. 
§ 1. p. 175, et§a. ibid. 

7° Euseb. Eccl. Hist. Lib. 5. c. 20. 



EQUALITY OF BISHOPS AND PRESBYTERS. 171 

who, with the succession of the Episcopate, received the 
certain gift of truth, according to the good pleasure of the 
Father." 

" And truly, they who by many are regarded as presbyters, 
but serve their own pleasures, and, not having the fear of 
God in their hearts, but elated with the pride of their exalta- 
tion to the chief seat, commit wickedness in secret, saying, 
no one seeth us — they shall be convicted. — From all such we 
ought to withdraw, and, as we have said, to adhere to those 
who maintain the doctrine of the apostles, and who, with the 
order of the prcsbytcrship preserve sound doctrine and a 
blameless conversation for the confirmation and reproof of 
others." 71 

Again, he says, ' that they who. cease to serve the church 
in the ministry, are a reproach to the sacred order of the 
presbyters ;' but he had just before styled these same persons 
bishops. 12 

In his letter to the Roman bishop Victor, he speaks of 

71 Quapropter eis, qui in ecclesiis sunt, Presbyteris obaudire oportet, 
his, qui successionem habent ab Apostolis, sicut ostendimus ; qui cum 
Episcopatvs suecessione charisma veritatis certum secundum placi- 
tum Patris acceperunt, etc. After this, — Qui vero crediti quidem 
sunt a multis esse Presbyteri, serviunt autem suis voluptatibus, et 
non praeponunt limorem Dei in cordibus suis, sed contumeliis agunt 
reliquos, et principalis consessionis tumore elati sunt et in absconsis 
agunt mala, et dicunt, nemo nos videt, redarguentur a verbo, etc. — Ab 
omnibus igitur tahbus absistere oportet, adhaerere vero his, qui et 
Apostolorum, sicut praediximus, doctrinam custodiunt, et cum Pres- 
byterii ordine sermonem sanum et conversationem sine offensa praes- 
tant, ad confirmationem et correptionem ceterorum. Finally. Toiov- 
rovg IJ q so ft vtzqo vg dvavQtUJti y exxXr/Oia. ttsqI 6n> xal o Trgocpyrys 

(fTjOlV §0)00) TOvg Ct^jyoVTch GOV tV StQtjVT] Ital TOlig 6 7t tOXOTTOV g Iv 

Sixaioovvrj. — Irenneus, L. 4. c. 26. § "2, 3, 4. p. 262. § 5. p. 263. 

72 Qui ergo relinquunt praeconium ecclesiae imperitiam sanctorum 
presbytcrorvm argiiunt, non contemplantes quanto pluris sit idiota re- 
ligiosus a blaspherno et impudente sophista, L. 5. c. 20. § 2. In the 
preceding section, he says, Omnes enim valde posteriores sunt quam 
episcopi quibus apostoli tradiderunt ecclesias. § 1. 



172 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

the presbyters, who had presided over the church in that 
city before that bishop. One of these bishops, the predeces- 
sors of Victor, was Anicetus, whom Polycarp endeavored in 
vain to persuade to " retain the usage of the presbyters who 
had preceded him." 73 

We submit the above extracts to the attention of the 
reader, who cannot fail to observe, that the terms, bishop and 
presbyter are used by this ancient father, as perfectly conver- 
tible terms. Bishops he denominates presbyters ; and pres- 
byters, bishops. In so many words he ascribes the Episco- 
pate to presbyters. They unitedly constitute but one order 
in the priesthood. Both Justin and Irenaeus represent the 
churches of Asia Minor. The latter also resided for many 
years in the Western part of the Roman empire. The 
former, resided at Rome when he wrote the Apology from 
which the extract is taken. He travelled in the different 
countries where the gospel had been preached, confirming 
the churches, and was personally acquainted with the usages 
both of the Eastern and Western churches. The concur- 
ring testimony of these two witnesses shows, that as yet the 
Christian church universally retained the apostolical "institu- 
tion of two orders of the clergy. 

We are not ignorant of the gloss that is given to these 
passages from Irenaeus, in the endeavor to defend the theory 
of an original distinction between bishops and presbyters. 
But the consideration of the Episcopal argument is foreign 
to our purpose. The authorities are before the reader; and 
of their obvious meaning, any one is competent to foim an 
independent, unaided judgment. 

Titus Flavius Clemens, commonly known as Clement of 
Alexandria, lived at the close of the second, and the begin- 
ning of the third century. He was at the head of the cele- 
brated school at Alexandria, the preceptor of Origen, and 

™ Euseb. Eccl. Hist. Lib. 5. c. 20, 



EQUALITY OF BISHOPS AND PRESBYTERS. 173 

the most learned man of his age. He speaks indeed of 
presbyters, bishops and deacons. After citing from the epis- 
tles various practical precepts, he proceeds to say that " nu- 
merous other precepts also, directed to select characters, 
have been written in the sacred books, some to presbyters, 
some to bishops, some to deacons, and others to widows." 74 
In this enumeration he appears to have followed the order of 
the apostle in Tit. 1: 5 — 7, mentioning presbyters first. He 
repeatedly shows, however, that there were at that time 
but two orders, deacons and presbyters; having observed 
that in most things there are two sorts of ministry, the one, 
of a nobler nature than the other, and having illustrated 
this distinction by several other examples, he says : " Just so 
in the church, the presbyters are entrusted with the digni- 
fied ministry ; the deacons, with the subordinate." 75 He 
also speaks of a 7i()0xu\}tdQi'a, or first seat in the presbytery; 
from all which, the obvious inference is, that the bishop of 
this author is only the ttqozgzcdq of earlier writers, the presid- 
ing elder of the presbytery. Henceforth the title of 77qofgtg)£ 
is seldom found in the fathers, but instead of it that of mi6- 
y,07Tog, bishop, constantly occurs. 

In his treatise, " What rich man can be saved ?" Clem- 
ent relates that John, the apostle, observing a young man of 
singular beauty, was so struck with his appearance, that turn- 
ing to the bishop who presided over all, he commended him 
to his care in the presence of the church. John after repeat- 
ing the charge, is said to have returned to Ephesus, and "this 
presbyter," taking home the young man that had been com- 
mitted to his care, nourished, educated, and lost him. John 
himself, on his return, is represented to have addressed this 
same presbyter as a bishop, " O bishop, return to us your 

w Paedag. Lib. 3 p. 264. Comp. also Strom. L^b. 6. p. 667. 

75 'O/uowjg $6 aal xnrd rtjv fxxXrjGiar, rijv fxlv fi£?>TiOTixfjV ol 
ir^ec^vTtQot goIlovgiv, tixuva rr\v vJTSQTiztjV oi Oidxovoi — Strom. Lib. 
7. p. 700. 

15* 



174 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

charge." 73 Here then Clement uses interchangeably the 
terms, bishop and presbyter, to designate the same person, 
and makes John address, as bishop, one who was, notwith- 
standing, a mere presbyter. " In this author we find a pres- 
bytery and deacons only, which is as forcible an exclusion of 
a third order, whether superior or intermediate, as can be 
reasonably expected from a writer, who had no knowledge of 
a third." 

The account of Tertullian again, contemporary with 
Clement, both having died the same year, A. D. 220, har- 
monizes in a remarkable manner with that of Justin Mar- 
tyr, as exhibited above. In describing the worsh'p of Chris- 
tian assemblies, he observes : " Certain approved elders pre- 
side who have obtained that honor, not by price, but by the 
evidence of their fitness." 77 Aged men never presided by 
virtue of their age, in ancient Christian assemblies. Besides 
the passage distinctly asserts that these presidents were cho- 
sen to their office. They administered the sacrament and ful- 
filled the office of the nqoEarmg of Justin Martyr. " We never 
take from the hands of others than presidents, pracsidentium, 
the sacrament of the eucharist," says Tertullian. 78 The 
president is also denominated in the same chapter, antistes, 
a term exactly corresponding to that of 7TQOE(jJojg in Justin. 
That this president, styled also bishop, is only the presiding 
and officiating presbyter, is apparent from another passage in 
Tertullian. " The highest priest, who is the bishop, has the 
right of granting baptism ; afterwards, the presbyters and 
deacons ; not, however, without the authority of the bishops 
for the honor of the church." 79 The highest priest implies 
the existence of inferiors of the same order. What then is the 

76 Chap. 42. pp. 667, 669, vol. 7. Sanct. Pat. Op. Polemics. 

77 Praesident prolati quique seniores honorem istum non pretio, sed 
testimonio adepti ; neque enim pretio ulla res Dei constat. — Jlpol. 
c. 39. 

78 De Corona, c. 3. p. 102. 

79 Dandi baptismum quidem habet jus summus sacerdos qui est 



EQUALITY OF BISHOPS AND PRESBYTERS. 175 

bishop, but a presbyter elevated to the office of a president or 
moderator? That this office implies no superiority in order 
or rank, appears from the fact that he who held it was ap- 
pointed to it, not by any scriptural or apostolical ordination 
or appointment, but simply for the preservation of the honor 
and peace of the church. 

Tertullian represents another division of the church, that 
of .Africa, in which the Episcopal government was earliest 
developed ; but even in these churches the apostolical order 
had not yet been fully superseded by the hierarchy. The 
sum of his testimony as well as of that of all who have gone 
before him, is, that there was but one order in the church 
superior to that of deacons. The government of the church 
was, in his time, in a transition state. Tertullian stands, as 
has been justly observed, "on the boundary between two dif- 
ferent epochs in the development of the church." Henceforth 
the bishop assumes more prominence ; but as yet he has not be- 
gun to be acknowledged as one of an order superior to pres- 
byters. From the days of the apostles downwards he has 
been one among his fellow-presbyters possessing merely that 
conventional distinction which belongs to any one who may 
be appointed the presiding officer of a body, all whose 
members enjoy equal rights and privileges. Whatever apos- 
tolical succession there has been thus far, has been through 
a line of presbyters by presbyterian ordination. The lists 
which Irenaeus has given of primitive bishops are only cata- 
logues of presbyters bearing this title. The usurpation of 
Episcopal prerogative, the assumption by the bishops of di- 
vine right, and all those innovations whose general progress, 
we are soon to witness are unauthorized and anti-scriptural, 
and consequently are mere nullities ; and such they must 
ever continue to be, notwithstanding the incredible assurance 
with which, by some, their canonical authority is ceaselessly 

episcopus : Dehinc presbyteri et diaconi ; non tamen sine episcopi 
auctoritate propter ecclesiae honorem. — De Bapt. c. 17. 



176 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

asserted. General assertions however unfounded are ensily 
made; and, when boldly made and perpetually repeated, they 
do sometimes ensure reception. But we know not how any 
man who knows what proof is, and what the evidence in the 
present case is, can venture on such assumptions. What if 
Tertullian, Clement, Irenaeus, and others, tell us of bishops? 
"It remains yet to be evinced out of this and the like places, 
which will never be, that the word bishop is otherwise taken, 
than in the language of St. Paul and the Acts, for an order 
above presbyters. We grant them bishops, we grant them 
worthy men, we grant them placed in several churches by 
the apostles, we grant that Irenaeus and Tertullian affirm 
this; but that they were placed in a superior order above the 
presbytery, show from all these words why we should grant. 
It is not enough to say that the apostle left this man bishop 
in Rome, and that other in Ephesus, but to show when they 
altered their own decree set down by St. Paul, and made all 
the presbyters underlings to one bishop." 80 

3. Presbyters were understood in the early ages of Chris- 
tianity to possess the right to ordain, and generally to perform 
the functions of the Episcopal office. 

The right of presbyters to ordain, and the validity of ordi- 
nation administered by them, is a direct inference from what 
has already been said of their identity with bishops. Clem- 
ent knows nothing of any distinction between bishops and 
presbyters. Polycarp knows nothing of bishops. Each spe- 
cifies but two orders or grades of officers in the church, of 
which two deacons are one. Presbyters or bishops, of ne- 
cessity form the other order, and are one and the same. 
Justin Martyr, again, speaks of only two grades, of which 
deacons form one. Irenaeus, still later, uses the titles, bish- 
op and presbyter, as perfectly convertible terms ; and Clem- 
ent of Alexandria and Tertullian recognize no clear distinction 
between bishops and presbyters as different orders. If there- 

80 Milton's Prelatical Episcopacy, Prose Works, Vol. I. p. 85. 



EQUALITY OF BISHOPS AND PRESBYTERS. 177 

fore there were, in the ages immediately succeeding the apos- 
tles, but two orders in the church, if bishops and presbyters 
were still but different names for the same office, as they were 
in the churches founded by the apostles, then assuredly pres- 
byters had the right to ordain. The ordaining power was vest- 
ed in them, as the highest order of ecclesiastical officers. 

We have, however, direct proof that presbyters, in the primi- 
tive church, did themselves ordain. This is found in the epistle 
of Firmilian from Asia Minor, to Cyprian in Carthage, A. D. 
256. In explanation of the ecclesiastical polity of these 
churches, he says, " All power and grace is vested in the 
church, where the presbyters, majores natu, preside, who have 
authority to baptize, to impose hands [in the reconciling of 
penitents], and to ordain." 81 Firmilian wrote in the Greek 
language, from Asia; but we have a Latin translation of his 
epistle in the writings of Cyprian. No one who has any ac- 
quaintance with these languages, can doubt that the majores 
natu, of the Latin is a translation of ttq£g$vz£qoi, in the origi- 
nal. Both the terms 7iQ£(jfivztQoi and majores natu, mean 
the same thing; and each may, with equal propriety, be ren- 
dered aged men, elders, presbyters. 82 The Episcopal hie- 
rarchy was not fully established in these Eastern churches 
so early as in the Western. Accordingly, we find the pres- 
byters here in the full enjoyment still of their original right 

61 Omnis potestas et gratia in ecclesia constituta sit; ubi praesi- 
dent majores natu, qui et baptizandi, et manum imponendi, et ordi- 
nandi, possident, potestatem. — Cyprian, Epist. 75. p. 145. 

82 Reeves, the translator of Justin, a churchman, who loses no op- 
portunity of opposing sectarians, allows in his notes on the passage, 
TTQoeoroig, etc., that this ttqosoto)? of Justin, the prohati seniores of 
Tertiillian, the majores natu of Firmilian, and the TrgoeoToing ttqsg- 
fivrtgoi, or presiding presbyters of St. Paul, 1 Tim. 4: 17, were all 
one and the same. Now Tertullian, Cyprian, or Firmilian, the cele- 
brated bishop of Caesarea in Cappadocia, and St. Paul, all mean pres- 
byters. Their language cannot be otherwise interpreted without 
violence. Presbyter, says Bishop Jewell, is expounded in Latin by 
major natu. — Smyth's Prcsbyt. and Prelacy^ p. 367. 



178 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

to ordain. The general tenor of the letter, in connection 
with this passage, exhibits the popular government of the 
apostolical churches as yet continuing among the churches of 
Asia. The highest authority is vested in the members of the 
church, who still administer their own government. No re- 
strictions have yet been laid upon the presbyters in the ad- 
ministration of the ordinances. Whatever clerical grace is 
essential for the right administration of baptism, of consecra- 
tion, and of ordination, is still retained by the presbyters. 

This authority is in perfect harmony with that of Irenaeus 
given above, that the succession and the Episcopate had 
come down to his day, the latter part of the second century, 
through a series of presbyters, who, with the Episcopate, en- 
joyed the rights, and exercised the prerogatives, of bishops, 
ordination being of course included. " This passage," says 
Goode, " appears to me decisive as to Irenaeus's view of the 
matter." 83 

To the foregoing testimonies succeeds that of the author 
of the Commentaries on St. Paul's Epistles, attributed by 
some to Ambrose, but with greater probability assigned to 
Hilary the Deacon, A. D. 384. " The apostle calls Tim- 
othy, created by him a presbyter , 84 a bishop (for the first 
presbyters were called bishops), that when he departed, the 

83 Goode's Divine Rule, Vol. If. p. 66. 

84 " Timothy is here said, we may observe, to have been ordained a 
presbyter. And I cannot but think that the passage, 1 Tim. 4: 14, is 
favorable to this view. For without adopting- the translation which 
some have given of this passage, viz., ' with the laying on of hands 
for the office of a presbyter,' if we retain our own version, which ap- 
pears to me more natural, who or what is ' the presbytery f Ceitain- 
ly not consisting altogether of the apostles, though it appears, from 
2 Tim. 1: 6, that ordination was received by Timothy partly from St. 
Paul. But if presbyters joined in that ordination, it could not be to 
a higher sacerdotal grade or order than that of the presbyterhood. 
Nor is this inconsistent with his being called elsewhere an apostle, 
which name might be given him as one appointed to be a superin- 
tendent of a church." — Divine Rule, Vol. II. p. 64. 



EQUALITY OF BISHOPS AND PRESBYTERS. 179 

one that came next might succeed him. Moreover, in Egypt 
the presbyters confirm, if a bishop is not present. 85 But be- 
cause the presbyters that followed began to be found un- 
worthy to hold the primacy, the custom was altered ; the 
Council foreseeing that not order, but merit, ought to make 
a bishop ; and that he should be appointed by the judgment 
of many priests, lest an unworthy person should rashly usurp 
the office, and be a scandal to many." 86 

This passage, then, clearly contradicts the notion of our 
opponents as to the essential necessity by apostolical ordi- 
nance of the successional Episcopal consecration of all 
bishops. 87 

85 The author of the " Quaestiones in Vet. et Nov. Test." which 
have been ascribed to Augustine, but are probably not his, says, " In 
Alexandria, and through the whole of Egypt, if there is no bishop, 
a presbyter consecrates.' 1 (In Alexandria et per totam iEgyptum si 
desit Episcopus consecrat presbyter.) Where, however, one MS. 
reads, confirms (consignat). See Aug. Op , Vol. III. App., col. 93. 
On this subject, the 13th canon of the Council of Ancyra (in the code 
of the Universal Church) is also worth notice. — Divine Rule, ibid. 

86 Timotheum, presbyterum a se creatum, episcopurn vocat, quia 
primi presbyteri episcopi appellabantur, ut recedente uno sequens ei 
succederet. Denique apud iEgyptum presbyteri consignant si prss- 
sens non sit. episcopus. Sed quia cceperunt sequentes presbyteri in- 
digni inveniri ad priinatus tenendos, immutata est ratio, prospiciente 
Concilio, ut non ordo sed meritum crearet episcopurn multorum sa- 
cerdotum judicio constitutum ne indignus temere usurparet et esset 
multis scandalum. Comment, in Epb. 4: 11, 12. Inter Op. Am- 
bros., ed. Ben., Vol. II. app. col 241, 242. The " Council" may, I 
suppose, be what Tertullian calls " consessus ojrfinis." 

S7 There are, also, indirect confirmatory proofs. Such, I think, is 
afforded by the account we have in Eusebius (vi. 29,) of the appoint- 
ment of Fabianus to the bishopric of Rome, for the assembly that 
met to elect a bishop having fixed upon him, placed him at once on 
the Episcopal throne. ( 3 'ufjbCS?J^TOtg tTrl tov &(joi'OP t/~? ^rrioy.oTrJjg 
Xgfiovjag avrdv fm&ui'ru ) which seems to me irreconcilable with the 
notion that Episcopal consecration was essential to entitle him to the 
Episcopal seat ; for he was installed in it without any such consecra- 
tion. 



180 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

A preshytcr, it is to be observed, becomes the successor of 
the apostle; and the apostolical succession comes down 
through him, as through a bishop; plainly contradicting the 
notion that the grace of ordination is exclusively restricted 
to a succession of diocesan bishops, and establishing, in the 
opinion of this author, the validity of presbyterian ordina- 
tion. To this effect is the same author. " After the bishop, 
the apostle has subjoined the ordination (order) of the dea- 
conship. Why; but that the ordination (order) of a bishop 
and presbyter is one and the same? For each is a priest; 
but the bishop is chief; so that every bishop is a presbyter, 
but not every presbyter a bishop. For he is bishop who is 
chief among the presbyters. Moreover, he notices that Tim- 
othy was ordained a presbyter, but inasmuch as he had no 
other above him, he was a bishop" Hence he shows that 
Timothy, a presbyter, might ordain a bishop, because of his 
equality with him. " For it was neither lawful nor right for 
an inferior to ordain a superior, inasmuch as one cannot con- 
fer what he has not received." 88 

There is another passage which is in striking coincidence 
with the foregoing, and is probably from the same author, 
though found in an appendix to the works of Augustine. 
" That by presbyter is meant a bishop, the apostle Paul 
proves, when'he instructs Timothy whom he had ordained a 
presbyter, respecting the character of one whom he would 
make a bishop. For what else is the bishop than the first 

88 Post Episcopum tamen Diaconi ordinationem subjicit. Quare ? 
nisi quia Episcopi et Presbyteri una ordinatio est ? Utorque mini 
sacerdos est, sed Episcopus primus est ; ut omnis Episcopus Presby- 
ter sit, non omnis Presbyter Episcopus; hie enim Episcopus est, qui 
inter Presbyteros primus est. Denique Timotheum Presbyterum 
ordinatum significat ; sed quia ante se alterum non habebat, Episco- 
pus erat. Unde et quemadmodum Episcopum ordinet ostendit. Ne- 
que enim fas erat aut licebat, ut inferior ordinaret majorem ; nemo 
enim tribuit quod non accepit. — Comment, in 1 Tim. 3: 8, inter Am- 
bros. Op. Vol. .II. apj>. 295. 



EQUALITY OF BISHOPS AND PRESBYTERS. 181 

presbyter, that is, the highest priest ? For he [the bishop] 
calls them [the presbyters] by no other name than fellow- 
presbyters and fellow-priests. He therefore considers them 
of the same grade as himself." But he is careful by no 
means to do the same with regard to clerical persons of in- 
ferior rank. Not even with the deacons, for to place him- 
self in the same category with them would be degrading his 
own rank. " Does the bishop call the deacons his fellow- 
deacons ? Certainly not ; because they are far inferior to 
him, and it were a disgrace to call the judge a mere mana- 
ger of a clerk's office." If any are disposed to call in ques- 
tion this interpretation of the phrase, judicem dicere primi- 
cerium, I will only say that it was given to me by Prof. 
Rothe of Heidelberg, with whose name the reader has 
already become familiar, by the frequent references to his 
learned work on the Origin of the Christian Church. The- 
following is also his exposition of the passage. " Where 
there is a real difference of office and rank, the higher 
officer cannot .include himself in the official designation of 
the lower, without degrading himself. It would be a down- 
right insult, to address the president of a court as the head 
of his clerks. Just so it does not enter the mind of the 
bishop to call his deacons, fellovi-deacons , — making himself 
thereby a deacon. Between these two officers there exists 
an actual difference in rank. On the other hand, he calls 
the presbyters his fellow-presbyters, because he sees no real 
difference between his office and theirs, but only a difference 
in degree ; that is, he considers himself, in relation to the 
presbyters, as only primus inter pares, chief among equals. 
The offices of bishop and presbyter therefore are essentially 
one and the same ; the very thing which Ambrosiaster wishes 
to prove. ' For in Alexandria and throughout all Egypt, 
upon the decease of the bishop, the presbyter confirms [con- 
signat): "s 9 

e9 Presbyterum autem intelligi Episcopum probat Paulus Aposto- 

16 



182 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

Here the presbyter performs another of the Episcopal 
functions, — administering the rite, not only of ordination but 
of confirmation. 90 

The full sacerdotal power is possessed by every presby- 
ter, according to the authority of the earliest fathers. The 
apostolical fathers know no distinction between bishops and 
presbyters ; and later ones make no difference in their ordir 
or grade of rank. The distinction of bishop is only a con- 
ventional arrangement made for mutual convenience, but in 
no wise incapacitating the presbyter for the performance of 
any of his sacerdotal offices. The right to ordain still be- 
longs to him ; and the bishop, when selected to preside over 
his fellow-presbyters, receives no new consecration or ordi- 
nation, but continues himself to ordain as a presbyter. 

Such is a plain statement of this controverted point, and 
such the exposition which many Episcopal writers, even at 
the present day give of this subject. But if the delusive doc- 
trine of divine right and apostolical succession be given up, 
the validity of presbyterian ordination is of course conceded. 
Such Episcopalians, therefore, themselves afford us the fullest 
refutation of the absurd and arrogant pretensions of high- 
church Episcopacy. 

lus, quando Timotheum, quern ordinavit Presbyf.erum instrnit, qua- 
Ium debeat creare Episcopum. Quid estenim Episcopus nisi primus 
Presbyter, hoc est suinmus sacerdos ? Denique non abter quam Com- 
presbyteros, Condiaconos suos dicit Episcopus ? Non utique, quia 
multo inferiores sunt, et turpe est, iudicem dicere pr'micerium. — 
Jtugv.st.in. Op Vol. III. app. p. 77. Quaestiones in Vtte.rls ct jYov. Test. 
ex vtroqua mJxtim, cd. Betted. Antweip, 17Q0 — 3 

90 Whether the verb consignare expresses the confirmation of the 
baptized, or the imposition of hands upon those who wee i rdained, 
or on penitents, the work expressed by it was correctly accomplished 
by presbyters, in the absenee of the bishop, whose precedence was 
fouoded • -nly on custom, and the canons of the church. But these 
could not have legalized such acts of the presbyter had not his au- 
thority been apostolical. He was therefore duly authorized to per- 
form the functions of the Episcopal office. 



EQUALITY OF BISHOPS AND PRESBYTERS. 183 

We have next the authority of Jerome, who died A. D. 
426. He was one of the most learned of the Latin fathers. 
Erasmus styles him " by far the most learned and most elo- 
quent of all the Christians, and the prince of Christian di- 
vines." Jerome received his education at Rome, and was 
familiar with the Roman, Greek, and Hebrew languages. 
He visited Egypt, and travelled extensively in France and 
the adjacent countries. He resided, in the course of his 
life, at Constantinople, "at Antioch, at Jerusalem, and at 
Bethlehem. By his great learning, and his extensive ac- 
quaintance with all that related to the doctrines and usages 
both of the Eastern and of the Western churches, he was 
eminently qualified to explain the rights and prerogatives of 
the priesthood. 

But does Jerome testify to the right of presbyters to or- 
dain ? " What dees a bishop," says he, " ordination except- 
ed, that a presbyter may not do?" 91 This, however, is said 
of the relations of bishop and presbyter as they then were. 
This restriction of the right of ordaining to the bishops alone 
was a recent innovation, which had begun to distinguish 
them from the presbyters, and to subvert the original organ- 
ization of the church. But it was an acknowledged fact, 
in his day, that the bishops had no authority from Christ or 
his apostles for their unwarrantable assumptions. " As the 
presbyters know that it is by the custom of the church that 
they are subject to him who is placed over them, so let the 
bishops know that they are above presbyters rather by the 
custom of the church than by the fact of our Lord's ap- 
pointment, and that they (both bishops and presbyters) ought 
to rule the church in common, in imitation of the example 
of Moses." 92 

91 Quid enim facit, excepta ordinatione, Episcopus, quod presbyter 
non faciat ? — Ep. ad Evaiig. Ep. 101 alias 85. Op. Ed. Paris, 1693 — 
17(J6, p. 802. 

92 Comment, in Epist. ad Titus, c. 1. v. 5. Op. Vol. IV. Paris, 
1G03 — I7C(5, p. 413. 



184 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

He reviews the same subject with great point in his fa- 
mous epistle to Evagrius, or, more properly in modern edi- 
tions, to Evangelus. He rebukes with great severity certain 
persons who had preferred deacons in honor " above presby- 
ters, i. e., bishops." Having thus asserted the identity of 
bishops and presbyters, he goes on to prove his position from 
Phil. 1: 1 ; from Acts 20: 17, 28; from Titus 1: 5; from 1 
Tim. 4: 14 ; and from 1 Pet. 5: 1. " Does the testimony 
of these men seem of small account to you V he proceeds 
to say, "then clangs the gospel trumpet, — that son of thun- 
der whom Jesus so much loved, and who drank at the foun- 
tain of truth from the Saviour's breast. ' The presbyter to 
the elect lady and her children.' 2 John 1:1; and in 
another epistle, ' The presbyter to the well-beloved Gaius.' 
3 John 1: 1." 

" As to the fact, that afterwards, one was elected to 
preside over the rest, this was done as a remedy against 
schism ; lest every one drawing his proselytes to himself 
should rend the church of Christ. For even at Alexandria, 
from the evangelist Mark to the bishops Heraclas and Diony- 
sius, the presbyters always chose one of their number, placed 
him in a superior station, and gave him the title of bishop ; 
in the same manner as if an army should make an emperor ; 
or the deacons should choose from among themselves one 
whom they knew to be particularly active, and should call 
him arch-deacon. For, excepting ordination, what is done 
by a bishop, which may not be done by a presbyter." 93 

93 Sicut ergo Presbyter! sciunt, se ex Ecciesiae consuetudine ei, 
qui sibi praepositus fuerit, esse subiectos, ita Episcopi noverint, se 
magis consuetudine quam dispositions Dominicae veritate Presbyte- 
ris esse maiores, et in commune debere Ecclesiam regere, imitantes 
Moysen, qui cum haberet in potestate solus praeesse populo Israel, 
septuaginta elegit, cum quibus populum iudicaret. Audio quendam 
in tantam erupisse vecordiam, ut Diaconos Prcsbyteris, id est Episco- 
pis, anteferret. Nam cum Apostolus perspicue doceat, eosdem esse 
Presbyteros quos Episcopos,quid patitur mensarum et viduaram min- 



EQUALITY OF BISHOPS AND PRESBYTERS. 185 

Here the presbyters themselves elect one of their number 
and make him a bishop, so that even the bishop is ordained 
by the presbyters, if indeed it can be called an ordination; 
if not, then he is only a presbyter still, having no other 
right to ordain than they themselves have. Such, Jerome 

ister, ut supra eos se tumidus efferat, ad quorum preces Christi cor- 
pus sanguisque conficitur ? Quaeris auctoritatem ? Audi testimo- 
nium. Paulus et Timolheus, scrvi lesu Christi, omnibus Sanctis in 
Christo lesu, qui sunt Philippis, cum Episcopis et Diaconis. Vis et 
allud exemplum ? In Actibus Apostolorum ad unius Ecclesiae sa- 
cerdotes ita Paulus loquitur : Jtttcndite vobis et cvncto gregi, in quo 
vos Spiritus Sanctus posuit Episcopos, ut regerctis Ecclesiam Domini, 
quum acquisivit sanguine suo. Ac ne quis contentiose ~in una Eccle- 
sia plures Episcopos fuisse contendat, audi et aliud testimonium, in 
quo manifestissime comprobatur, eundemesse Episcopum atque Pres- 
byterum. Propter hoc reliqui te in Creta, tit, quae deerant, corrigeres, 
et constiluercs Prcsbyteros per civitatcs, sicul et ego tibi mandavi. 
Si quis est sine crimine, unius uxoris vir, filios habeas fideles, non in 
accusatione luxuriae, aut non suhditos. Oportet enim Episcopum sine 
crimine esse, quasi Dei dispensatorem. Et ad Timotheum : Noli 
negligcre grutiam, quae in te est, quae tibi data est prophetae, per im- 
positionem manuum Prcsbyterii. Sed et Petrus in prima epistola : 
Presbyteros, inquit, in vobis precor compresbyter et testis passionum 
Christi etfuturae gioriae, quae revelanda est, partic.eps, regere gregcm 
Christi, et inspicere non ex necessitate, sed voluntarie iuxta Deum. 
Quod quidem graece significant! us dicitur tTTioxoirovvre?, id est su- 
perintendentes, unde et nomen Episcopi tractum est. Parva tibi vi- 
dentur tantorum vivorum testimonia ? Clangat tuba evangelica, fil- 
ms tonitrui, quem lesus amavit plurirnum, qui de pectore salvatoris 
doctrinarum fiuenta potavit : Presbyter Electae Dominae et filiis eius, 
quos ego diligo in veritate. Et in alia epistola : Presbyter Caio Curis- 
sirno, quem. ego diligo in veritate. Quod autem postea unus electus 
est, qui ceteris praeponeretur, in schismatis remedium factum est, ne 
unusquisque ad se trahens Christi Ecclesiam rumperet. Nam Alex- 
andriae a Marco Evangelista usque ad Heraclam et Dionysium Epis- 
copos Presbyteri semper unum ex se electum in excelsiori gradu col- 
locatum Episcopum nominabant, quomodo si exercitus Imperatorem 
faciat, aut Diaconi eligant de se quem industrium noverint et Archi- 
diaconum vocent. Quid enirn facit excepta ordinatione Episcopus, 
quod Presbyter non faciat ? — Ep. ad Evang. 101 alias 85. p. 802. 

16* 



186 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

assures us, is the usage " in every country." There was but 
one ordination for bishops and presbyters in his time, though 
bishops had now begun exclusively to administer it. But 
we have a stream of testimonies coming down to us from 
the time of the apostles, that it had been the custom of the 
church from the beginning, for bishops and presbyters to re- 
ceive the same ordination. This is another consideration of 
much importance, to show that presbyters were entitled to 
ordain. Having themselves received Episcopal ordination, 
as truly as the bishops, they were equally qualified to admin- 
ister the same. 

But Jerome himself attributes to presbyters the original 
right of ordination. " Priests who baptize, and administer 
the eucharist, anoint with oil, impose hands, instruct cate- 
chumens, constitute Levites and others priests, have less 
reason to take offence at us, explaining these things, or at 
the prophets foretelling them, than to ask of the Lord for- 
giveness." 

The relevancy of this passage depends upon the question 
who are the sacerdotes, priests, of whom Jerome speaks. 
He is commenting upon Zephaniah 3: 3. Her princes with- 
in her, are roaring lions, by which he understands her priests, 
saying, " I am aware, that I shall offend many because I in- 
terpret these things as said of bishops and presbyters." 94 
Then, after remarking, at length, upon this degenerate 
priesthood, he adds the sentence above. Jerome, therefore, 
ascribes to presbyters and bishops alike, the same right to con- 
stitute " Levites and others priests," applying the terms, not 

94 Scio offensurum me esse plurimos quod super episcopis et pres- 
byteris haec interpreter. . . . Sacerdotes qui dant baptismum et ad eu- 
charistiam Domini uniprecantur adventum, faciunt oleum chrisma- 
tis, manus imponunt, catechumenos erudiunt, Levitas et alios con- 
stituunt sacerdotes, non tam indignentur nobis haec exponentibus et 
prophetis vaticinantibus, quam Dominum deprecentur. — Tom. 3. pp. 
1672, 1673. 



EQUALITY OF BISHOPS AND PRESBYTERS. 187 

to the Jewish priesthood, but to the clergy of the Christian 
church in his day, and including both bishops and presbyters 
under the same category, as possessing equal rights to bap- 
tize, to ordain, and to administer the sacraments. 

That the right of ordination belonged to presbyters, is 
evident from the authority of Eutychius, of Alexandria, the 
most distinguished writer .among the Arabian Christians of 
the tenth century. His authority confirms the testimony of 
Jerome, while it illustrates more clearly the usage of the 
church in Egypt. The citation with the translation is from 
Goode. This author with reference to Eutychius says, " His 
words are these ; after mentioning that Mark the Evangelist 
went and preached at Alexandria, and appointed Hananias 
the first patriarch there, he adds : ' Moreover he appointed 
twelve presbyters with Hananias, who were to remain with 
the Patriarch, so that, when the Patriarchate was vacant, 
they might elect one of the twelve presbyters, upon whose 
head the other eleven might place their hands and bless him 
[or, invoke a blessing upon him], and create him Patriarch, 
and then choose some excellent man and appoint him pres- 
byter with themselves in the place of him who was thus 
made Patriarch, that thus there might always be twelve. 
Nor did this custom respecting the presbyters, namely, that 
they should create their Patriarchs from the twelve presby- 
ters, cease at Alexandria until the times of Alexander, Pa- 
triarch of Alexandria, who was of the number of the 318 
[bishops at Nice}. But he forbade the presbyters to create 
the Patriarch for the future, and decreed that when the Pa- 
triarch was dead, the bishops should meet together and or- 
dain the Patriarch. Moreover he decreed that on a vacancy 
of the Patriarchate they should elect, either from any part 
of the country, or from those twelve presbyters, or others, as 
circumstances might prescribe, some excellent man and 
create him Patriarch. And thus that ancient custom by 
which the Patriarch used to be created by the presbyters dis- 



183 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

appeared, and in its place succeeded the ordinance for the 
creation of the Patriarch by the bishops.' 95 

" I have given this passage in full, because it has been 
sometimes replied that it referred only to the diction of the 
Patriarch, and that we must suppose that he was afterwards 
consecrated to his office by bishops. But. it is evident to 
any one who takes the whole passage together, that such an 
explanation is altogether inadmissible; and moreover, the 
very same word (which, following Selden, we have translated 
ci'caticl) is used with respect to the act of the presbyters, as 
is afterwards used with respect to the act of the bish( ps in 
the appointment. 

" I am quite aware that very considerable learning has 
been employed in the attempt to explain away this passage, 
and the reader who wishes to see how a plain statement may 
thus be darkened, may refer to the works mentioned be- 
low." 98 

93 The following is Selden's translation of the passage from the 
Arabic : — " Constituit item Marcus Evangelista duodecim Presbyte- 
ros cum Hanania, qui nempe manerent cum Patriarcha, adeo ut cum 
vacaiet Patriarchatus, eligerent unum e duodecim Presbyteris cujus 
capiti roliqui undecim manus imponerent eumque bened cerent et 
Patriarcham eum crearent, et dein virum aliquem insignem elioerent 
eumque Presbyterum secum constituerent loco ejus qui sic factus est 
Patriarcha, ut ita semper extarent duodecim. INeque desiit Alexan- 
driae institutum hoc de Presbyteris, ut scilicet Patriarchas crearent ex 
Presbyteris duodecim, usque ad tempora Alexandri Patriarchas Alex- 
andrmi qui fuitex numeio illo cccxviii Is autem vetuit ne deinceps 
Patriarcham Presbyteri crearent. Et decrevit ut mortuo Patriarcha 
convenient Episcopi qui Patriarcham ordinarent. Decrevit item ut, 
vac-ante Patriarchatu, eligerent sive ex quacunque regione, sive ex 
duodecim illis Presbyteris, sive aliis, ut res ferebat, virum aliquem 
eximium, eumque Patriarcham crearent. Atque ita evanuit institu- 
tum illud ant'quius, quo creari solitus a Presbyteris Patriarchia, et 
successit in locum ejus decretum de Patriarcha ab Episcopis creando." 
Eutijcli. Pair. Alex. Ecclcsicc sua orig. Ed. J. Selden. London, ](j42. 
4to. pp. 2.)— 3] . 

96 See Abr. Echell. Eutychius Vindicatus, Morinus De Ordinal 
Renaudot. Hist. Patriarch Alex. 



EQUALITY OF BISHOPS AND PRESBYTERS. 189 

Gieseler pertinently remarks, in regard to it, that " it is at 
least certain that the part which is contradictory to the usage 
of later times has not been interpolated ; and so far it has 
an historical value." 97 

The right of presbyters to ordain, and the validity of pres- 
byterian ordination, was never called in question, according 
to Planck, until the bishops began, about the middle of the 
third century, to assert the doctrine of the apostolical suc- 
cession. " With the name it seemed desirable also to inherit 
the authority of the apostles. For this purpose they availed 
themselves of the right of ordination. The right of ordi- 
nation of course devolved exclusively upon the bishops as 
alone competent rightly to administer it. As they had been 
duly constituted the successors of the apostles, so also had 
they alone the right to communicate the same in part or fully, 
by the imposition of hands. From this time onward, to give 
the rite more effect, it was administered with more imposing 
solemnity." And in all probability it became customary at 
this early period to utter in the laying on of hands, those 
words of prelatical arrogance and shocking irreverence, l Re- 
ceive the Holy Ghost' for the office and work of a bishop. 98 

Dr. Neander has assured the writer, in conversation on 
this point, that beyond a doubt presbyters were accustomed 
to ordain in the ages immediately succeeding the apos- 
tles. The testimony of Firmilian, given above, is, accord- 
ing to Neander, explicit in confirmation of this fact, and 
the same sentiments are also expressed or implied in his works. 
If further evidence is needed on this point, it is given at length 
and with great ability by Blondell, who, after occupying one 
hundred quarto pages with the argument, sums up the re- 
sult of the discussion in the following syllogism : 

97 Cited in the author's Christian Antiquities, p. 103. In addition 
to the authors mentioned above, by Goode, are Le Quien and Peta- 
vius. Comp. also, Neander, Allgem. Gesch. 1. S. 325, 326, 2d edit., 
Note. J. F. Rehkopf, Vitae Patriarcharum Alexandr. fasc. I and IT. 

93 Planck, Gesell. Verfass. 1. S. 158—161. 







190 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

" To whom the usage of the church has assigned, in reali- 
ty, the same functions, to them, it has also from the begin- 
ning ascribed the same ministerial parity, and of course, the 
same dignity. 

" But the usage of the church has assigned to bishops and 
presbyters, in reality, the same functions in the right of con- 
firmation, of dedication of churches, of taking the veil, of the 
reconciling of penitents, and in the ordination of presbyters, 
deacons, etc. 

" Therefore, it has, from the beginning, declared that bish- 
ops and presbyters, are in all respects equal, and of necessity, 
that they are the same in dignity or rank." 99 

Even the decrees of ecclesiastical councils which restrict 
the right of ordination to the bishops alone, distinctly imply 
that from the beginning it was not so limited. Why deny to 
presbyters the right to ordain, by a formal decree, if they had 
never enjoyed that right? The prohibition is an evident re- 
striction of their early prerogatives. 

But we forbear; enough has been said to vindicate the 

right of presbyters to ordain, and to perform all the functions 

of the ministerial office. Indeed, we cannot but wonder that 
it should ever have been called in question. How extraordi- 
nary the hardihood with which, in the face of authorities a 
thousand times collated and repeated, we are still told that 
"the idea of ordination, by any but bishops was an unheard- 
of thing in the primitive church." 100 The burden of proof 
rests with overwhelming weight upon those who venture on 
such assertions. This idea is forcibly presented by Dr. Miller, 
in the following extract, with which we close this review of 

99 Apologia pro sententia Hieronomi de Episcopis et prcsbyteris. 
Amstelod. 1616, 4to. 

100 " So much for the idea of any but bishops ordaining in the prim- 
itive church. Never was this allowed before the Reformation ; either 

. in the church, or by any sect however wild !" — Review of Coleman s 
Christian Antiquities, by H. W. D. a presbyter in Philadelphia. 



EQUALITY OF BISHOPS AND PRESBYTERS. 191 

the authority of the fathers on the point now under con- 
sideration. 

" The friends of prelacy have often, and with much appar- 
ent confidence, challenged us to produce out of all the early 
fathers, a single instance of an ordination performed by pres- 
byters. Those who give this challenge might surely be ex- 
pected in all decency and justice, to have a case of Episcopal 
ordination ready to be brought forward, from the same vene- 
rable records. But have they ever produced such a case ? 
They have not. Nor can they produce it. As there is un- 
questionably, no instance mentioned in Scripture of any per- 
son, with the title of bishop, performing an ordination ; so it 
is equally certain that no such instance has yet been found 
in any Christian writer within the first two centuries. Nor 
can a single instance be produced of a person, already or- 
dained as a presbyter, receiving a new and second ordination 
as bishop. To find a precedent favorable to their doctrine, 
the advocates of Episcopacy have been under the necessity 
of wandering into periods when the simplicity of the gospel 
had in a considerable degree, given place to the devices of 
men; and when the man of sin had commenced that system 
of unhallowed usurpation, which for so many centuries cor- 
rupted and degraded the church of.God. 

" Such is the result of the appeal to the early fathers. They 
are so far from giving even a semblance of support to the 
Episcopal claim, that, like the Scriptures, they everywhere 
speak a language wholly inconsistent with it, and favorable 
only to the doctrine of ministerial parity. What then shall 
we say of the assertions so often and so confidently made, 
that the doctrine of a superior order of bishops, has been 
maintained in the church, 'from the earliest ages,' in 'the 
ages immediately succeeding the apostles,' and ' by all the 
fathers from the beginning?' What shall we say of the as- 
sertion, that the Scriptures, interpreted by the writings of the 
early fathers, decidedly support the same doctrine? I wilf 



192 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

only say, that those who find themselves able to justify such 
assertions, must have been much more successful in dis- 
covering early authorities in aid of their cause, than the 
most diligent, learned, and keen-sighted of their prede- 
cessors. " i0J 

We have even high Episcopal authority for presbyterian 
ordination. Repugnant as is this view of ordination to the 
modern advocates of Episcopacy, it accords with the senti- 
ments of Archbishop Cranmer, and the first protestant bish- 
ops of the church of England. The following extract from 
a highly interesting document contains the answer of that 
venerable prelate himself, to certain questions propounded to 
a select assembly at Windsor Castle, in the reign of Edward 
the sixth. 

" A bishop may make a priest by the Scriptures, and so 
may princes and governors alsoe, and that by the auctority 
of God committed to them, and the people alsoe by their elec- 
tion. For as we reade that bishops have done it, so Chris- 
tian emperors and princes usually have done it. And the 
people before Christian princes were, commonly did elect 
their bishops and priests. In the New Testament, he that is 
appointed to be a bishop or a priest, needeth no consecration 
by the Scripture ; for election or appointing thereto is suffi- 
cient."^ 

101 Miller's Letters, pp. 108, 109. 

102 See transcript of the whole of the original, which was sub- 
scribed with Cranmer's own hand, in Bishop Stillingfleet's Inuician, 
Part II. c. 7. § 2. See also, Burnet's History uf the Reformation, P. 
J, pp. 318, 321. Cited from Conder's Nonconformity. Many other 
authorities from English writers are given in S. Mather's Apology 
for the Liberty of the Churches, Chap. 2. p. 51. They have also been 
collected, and collated with great industry. and research, by Rev. Dr. 
Smyth, in his Apostolical Succession, and his Presbytery not Prelacy. 
So, also, in an article in the Christian Spectator, New Series, Vol. II. 
p. 720, from whence several of the authorities given below are taken. 



EQUALITY OF BISHOPS AND PRESBYTERS. 193 

A volume might be filled with authorities from the Eng- 
lish church alone, in which both her most distinguished 
prelates and her most eminent scholars concede to pres- 
byters a virtual equality with bishops, and the right to 
ordain. 

The Necessary Erudition of a Christian Man, drawn up 
with great care, approved by both houses of Parliament kfc 
1543, and prefaced by an epistle from the king himself, de- 
clares, that, " priests [presbyters] and bishops are, by God's 
law, one and the same ; and that the powers of ordination 
and excommunication belong equally to both." Under Eliz- 
abeth it was enacted by parliament, "that the ordination of 
foreign churches should be held valid." 

The learned Whittaker, of Cambridge, declares the doc- 
trine of the reformers to be, that " presbyters, being by divine 
right the same as bishops, they might warrantably set other 
presbyters over the churches." 

Archbishop Usher, one of the brightest ornaments of the 
Episcopal church, on being asked by Charles I, in the Isle of 
Wight, whether he found in antiquity that "presbyters alone 
did ordain ?" answered, i( yes," and that he would show his 
Majesty more — " even where presbyters alone successively 
ordained bishops ;" and he brought as an instance of this, the 
presbyters of Alexandria choosing and making their own 
bishop, from the days of Mark till Heraclas and Dionysius. 

Bishop Stillingfleet says, " It is acknowledged by the stout- 
est champions of Episcopacy, before these late unhappy divi- 
sions, that ordination performed by presbyters in case of ne- 
cessity is valid." 

Bishop Forbes. " Presbyters have by divine right the 
power of ordaining as well as of preaching and baptizing." 

Sir Peter King, Lord Chancellor of England, after assert- 
ing the equality of bishops and presbyters, and showing at 
length, that the latter bad full authority to administer the or- 
dinances, adds, " As for ordination, I find clearer proofs of 
17 



194 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

presbyters ordaining, than of their administering the Lord's 
supper." 

The first reformers, under the reign of King Edward, ac- 
cording to Neal, in his history of the Puritans, " believed but 
two orders of churchmen in holy Scripture — bishops and dea- 
cons; and consequently, that bishops and priests [presby- 
ters] were but different ranks or degrees of the same order." 
Acting on this principle, " they gave the right hand of fellow- 
ship to foreign churches, and to ministers who had not been 
ordained by bishops." 

The doctrine of the divine right of bishops, from which that 
of the exclusive validity of their ordination proceeds, was first 
promulgated in a sermon preached Jan. 12, 1588 in the Eng- 
lish by Dr. Bancroft. He first maintained that bishops are a 
distinct order from priests or presbyters, and have authority 
over them jure divino, and directly from God. This bold and 
novel assertion created a great sensation throughout the king- 
dom. It was a vast extension of the prerogatives of the bish- 
ops, by which the oppression of the Puritans was increased 
to an incalculable degree. " The greater part even of the 
prelatic party themselves were startled by the novelty of the 
doctrine ; for none of the English reformers had ever regard- 
ed the bishops as anything else but a human institution, ap- 
pointed for the more orderly government of the church ; and 
they were not prepared at once to condemn as heretical all 
churches where that institution did not exist. Whitgift him- 
self, perceiving the use which might be made of such a tenet 
said that the doctor's sermon had done much good, — though 
for his own part, he rather wished than believed it to be 
true." 103 The doctrine was re-affirmed half a century later 
by Laud and his party; 104 and from that time has been the 
favorite dogma of many in the Episcopal church. 

Even at the present time the validity of presbyteriau ordi- 

103 Hitherton's History of the Westminster, pp. 49, 50. 
w * Hallam's Constitutional History, Vol. II. pp. 440—1. 



EQUALITY OF BISHOPS AND PRESBYTERS. 195 

nation is acknowledged by many in the Episcopal church. 
Not twenty years since, one of the principal conductors of 
the Christian Observer said to an American gentleman, " I 
have not for ten years seen the man who was so utterly fool- 
ish, as to claim any exclusive divine right for our ordination, 
or ordinances; or who hesitated to acknowledge other com- 
munions as churches of Christ." 

And Goode also, who has written from Cambridge, with 
great ability against the Tractarians, says: — "I admit that 
for the latter point [ordination by bishops alone, as successors 
of the apostles], there is not any Scripture proof; but we 
shall find here, as in other cases, that as the proof is not to 
be found in Scripture, so antiquity also is divided with re- 
spect to it ; and moreover, that though it is the doctrine of 
our church, yet that it is held by her with an allowance for 
those who may differ from her on that point, and not as if 
the observance of it was requisite by divine command, and 
essential to the validity of all ordinations ; though for the 
preservation of the full ecclesiastical regularity of her own or- 
ders, she has made it essential to the ministers of her own 
communion." 105 In support of this opinion he proceeds to 
enumerate many of the authorities of the fathers given 
above. 

Finally, we add the following extract, not again from an 
" irreverent dissenter," — to use the flippant cant of one of the 
Tractarians, — but from a devoted son of their own church, a 
distinguished layman of England, who has written with great 
ability and good effect, against the doctrines of Puseyism and 
the high church party. 

" It is no part of my plan to trace the origin or course of 
departure from the system of church government in the apos- 
tolical times, as it lies before us in all its simplicity. I admit 
— indeed, as the lawyers say, it is a part of my case — that 
some change was unavoidable ; and I see nothing in the 

105 Divine Rule, Vol. II. pp. 57, 58. 



196 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

present constitution of the church of England that is incon- 
sistent with the principle of the apostles. But to say that 
they are identical, is a mere abuse of words. Still less is it 
to be heard say without some impatience, that there is 
safety in her communion only as she has descended from 
the apostles, through all the changes and abominations that 
have intervened." 106 

After going through with a sketch of the historical argu- 
ment in defence of his sentiments and citing many of the au- 
thorities given above, he proceeds : — " I am aware that in St. 
Jerome's time there existed generally, though by no means 
universally, this difference between the bishop and the pres- 
byters, viz., that to the former was then confided the power 
of ordination. The transition from perfect equality to abso- 
lute superiority was not suddenly effected ; it was the growth 
of time ; not of years, but of centuries; the distinction of au- 
thority or office preceding that of order or degree in the 
church, and being introductory to it. With the former I 
have no concern, it being sufficient to show, that as a distinct 
and superior order in the church, Episcopacy, in the modern 
acceptation of the term, did not exist in the time of the apos- 
tles ; and that, however expedient and desirable such an in- 
stitution might be, it cannot plead the sanction of apostolic 
appointment or example. It may be difficult to fix the period 
exactly when the Episcopate was first recognized as a dis- 
tinct order in the church, and when the consecration of bish- 
ops, as such, came to be in general use. Clearly not, I think 
when St. Jerome wrote. Thus much at least is certain, viz. 
that the government of each church, including the ordination 
of ministers, was at first in the hands of the presbytery ; that 
when one of that body was raised to the office of president, 
and on whom the title of bishop was conferred, it was simply 
by the election (co-optatio) of the other presbyters, whose 
appointment was final, requiring no confirmation or conse- 

» 06 Bowdler's Letters, pp. 32, 33. 



EQUALITY OF BISHOPS AND PRESBYTERS. 197 

cration at the hands of any other prelates ; and that each 
church was essentially independent of every other. 

" If then all this be so, there seems to be an end to the 
question ; for under whatever circumstances the privilege of 
ordaining was afterwards committed to the bishop, he could 
of necessity receive no more than it was in their power to 
bestow, from whom he received it, who were co-ordinate 
presbyters, not superiors. At whatever period, therefore, it 
was adopted, and with whatever uniformity it might be con- 
tinued, and whatever of value or even authority it might 
hence acquire ; still as an apostolical institution it has none : 
there is a gap which never can be filled ; or rather, the link 
by which the whole must be suspended is wanting and can 
never be supplied. There can be no apostolical succession 
of that which had no apostolical existence ; whereas the aver- 
ment to be of any avail must be, not only that it existed in 
the time of the apostles, but was so appointed by them as that 
there can be no true church without it." 107 

The right of presbyters, then, to ordain, is admitted by 
moderate Episcopalians even at the present time. 108 It was 
maintained by the reformers generally, both in England, and 
on the continent. It was their undoubted prerogative in the 
early "ages of the Christian church. 

To sum up all that has been said — if presbyters and bish- 
ops are known by the same names, if they are required to 
possess the same qualifications, and if they are found actual- 
ly discharging the same duties, then what higher evidence 
can we expect or desire of their equality and identity? This 
course of argumentation is precisely similar to that by 
which orthodoxy defends the supreme divinity of our Lord 
Jesus Christ, and his equality with the Father. And none 
perhaps more readily admit the validity of this mode of 

107 Bowdler's Letters, pp. 43—50. 

108 Comp, Whately's Kino-dom of Christ, pp. 151, 212. 

17* 






198 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

argument, when applied to this cardinal principle in the Chris- 
tian system, than the members of the Episcopal communion. 
What is the argument for the oneness of Christ with the Fa- 
ther 1 Simply that he is called by the names, that he pos- 
sesses the attributes, that he receives the honors and performs 
trie works of the Father; and, therefore, is one with Him. 
If, then, this course of reasoning commands our assent in these 
profound mysteries, why not much more in the case under 
consideration? We confidently rest, in the conclusion of 
the learned Dr. Wilson, that " whatever misconstructions of 
the presbyterial office may have obtained, it is and always 
will bej the highest ordinary office in the Christian church ; 
and no presbyter, who is officially such, can be less than a 
bishop, and authorized to instruct, govern, and administer, 
and ordain at least in conjunction with his co-presbyters of 
the same presbytery and council." 

4. Bishops themselves, in their ministerial character, ex- 
ercised only the jurisdiction, and performed merely the of- 
fices, of presbyters in the primitive church. 

For the sake of argument, let us admit "that this office 
of bishop is disclosed to us in the Christian church in the 
very earliest records of history. Within ten years after the 
death of St. John, we find that the three orders of ministers 
were actually denominated bishop, priest and deacon j and 
to each was assigned the same office, together with nearly 
the same power and duty as appertain to them at the present 
day. Hear how Ignatius speaks to the Philadelphians : 'At- 
tend to the bishop, and to the presbytery, and to the dea- 
cons.' " 109 Such is the exultation with which Episcopalians 
appeal to Ignatius. It is indeed clear beyond a doubt, that 
this writer does speak of bishops, presbyters and deacons ; 
and that, in strains almost of profane adulation, he seeks to 
exalt the authority both of bishops and presbyters. But the 

109 Bishop De Lancey's Faithful Bishop. Boston, 1843, p. 17. 



EQUALITY OF BISHOPS AND PRESBYTERS. 199 

learned hardly need to be reminded that suspicion rests upon 
all these epistles of Ignatius. Many, both in this country 
and in Europe, who are most competent to decide upon their 
merits, have pronounced them undoubted forgeries. No 
confidence can be placed upon them as historical authority. 
Whether they really belong to the second, third, or fourth 
century, is altogether uncertain. They have been often and 
carefully canvassed by eminent scholars, both in America 
and in Europe. Professor Norton declares them to be un- 
doubted forgeries. Rothe has written with surpassing ability 
a defence of them. But the most probable conjecture, and 
the one most generally received, is, that they are filled with 
interpolations from various hands, and of different dates. 
Such is Dr. Neander's opinion, as stated to the writer in 
conversation upon them. 

Milton, after exposing the absurdities, corruptions and an- 
achronisms of these epistles, proceeds to say, " These, and 
other like passages, in abundance through all those short epis- 
tles, must either be adulterate, or else Ignatius was not Igna- 
tius, nor a martyr, but most adulterate and corrupt himself. 
In the midst, therefore, of so many forgeries, where shall we 
fix to dare say this is Ignatius ? As for his style, who knows 
it, so disfigured and interrupted as it is, except they think that 
where they meet with anything sound and orthodoxal, there 
they find Ignatius ? And then they believe him, not for his 
own authority, but for a truth's sake, which they derive from 
elsewhere. To what end then should they cite him as au- 
thentic for Episcopacy, when they cannot know what is 
authentic in him, but by the judgment which they brought 
with them, and not by any judgment which they might safely 
learn from him ? How can they bring satisfaction from such 
an author, to whose very essence the reader must be fain to 
contribute his own understanding 1 Had God ever intended 
that we should have sought any part of useful instruction 
from Ignatius, doubtless he would not have so ill provided for 



200 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

our knowledge, as to send him to our hands in this broken 
and disjointed plight; and if he intended no such thing, we 
do injuriously in thinking to taste better the pure evangelic 
manna by seasoning our mouths with the tainted scraps and 
fragments of an unknown table, and searching among the 
verminous and polluted rags dropped overworn from the toil- 
ing shoulders of time, with these deformedly to quilt and 
interlace the entire, the spotless and undecaying robe of 
truth, the daughter not of time, but of heaven, only bred up 
here below in Christian hearts between two grave and holy 
nurses, the doctrine and discipline of the gospel." 110 

But we will suppose these epistles to be the genuine pro- 
ductions of Ignatius, and that he himself is one of those 
" apostolic men who drank in Christianity from the living 
lips of the apostles themselves." Grant it all. What then ? 
Do not these epistles, says the churchman, testify explicitly, 
clearly, fully, " to the superiority of bishops in government 
and ordination over presbyters and deacons 1 " Not in the 
least. What, we ask, were the dioceses of these bishops of 
Ignatius's epistles ? Nothing but single parishes. What 
were these venerable bishops themselves? Nothing more 
than the pastors each of a single congregation. They were 
merely parish ministers, parochial bishops ; and, though bear- 
ing the name of bishop, they were as unlike a modern dio- 
cesan as can well be imagined. This fact deserves a careful 
consideration. Let us not deceive ourselves with a name, a 
title. We are not inquiring after names, but things. Be- 
cause we read of primitive bishops in the early church, must 
we suppose that each, of necessity claimed the superiority, 
or enjoyed the proud distinction of the modern dignitary of 
the church bearing the same title? The name determines 
nothing in regard to the official rank and duties of a primi- 
tive bishop. Give to a congregational or presbyterian min- 
ister this title, and you have made him truly a primitive 

110 Milton's Prelatical Episcopacy. Prose Works, Vol. I. pp. 79, 80. 



EQUALITY OF BISHOPS AND PRESBYTERS. 201 

bishop. These ancient dignitaries, down to the third cen- 
tury, and in many instances, even later, exercised no wider 
jurisdiction, and performed no higher offices, than a modern 
p resby ter, or any pastor of a single parish or congregation. 

In support of the foregoing representation, we have to 
offer the following considerations : 

(a) By all primitive writers, the bishop's charge is denom- 
inated invariably a church, a congregation ; never in the 
plural, churches or congregations. 

(b) It is admitted by Episcopalians themselves, that the 
diocese of a primitive bishop comprised only a single church. 

(c) The Christians under the charge of one of these an- 
cient bishops, were all accustomed to meet in one place, like 
the people of a modern parish congregation. 

(d) All under his charge were, in many instances, as 
familiarly known to the bishop himself, as are the people 
of a parish to their pastor. 

(c) So many bishops were found in a single territory, of 
limited extent, that no one could have exercised a jurisdic- 
tion beyond the bounds of a single parish. 

(f) The charge of a primitive bishop is known, in many 
instances, not to have equalled that of a modern presbyter or 
pastor. 

(a) By all primitive writers, the bishop's charge is denom- 
inated invariably a church, a congregation; never in the 
plural, churches or congregations. 

The cure of a primitive bishop is never, in a single in- 
stance, represented as comprising several congregations, like 
that of a modern diocesan ; but is always restricted to a 
single body of Christians, denominated a church. As the 
epistles of Paul the apostle are addressed to the church at 
Rome, at Corinth, at Ephesus, etc., so those of the apostol- 
ical fathers, Clement, Polycarp and Ignatius are addressed, 



202 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

in like manner, to a single church — to the church at Co- 
rinth, at Philippi, at Ephesus, at Smyrna, etc. Neither is 
the word church ever used by the early fathers in a generic 
sense, for a national or provincial church, as we speak of the 
church of England, or of Scotland. This fact is so indis- 
putable, that no time need be wasted in the proof of it. But 
it is worthy of particular attention, as illustrative of the na- 
ture of a bishop's office. It presents his duties and his office 
in total contrast with those which are assigned to him by 
prelacy. It reveals to us the primitive bishop as merely a 
parish minister. 

"Now as one bishop is invariably considered, in the most 
ancient usage, as having only one ixxXqaia, it is manifest 
that his inspection at first was only over one parish. Indeed, 
the words congregation and parish are, if not synonymous, 
predicable of each other. The former term relates more 
properly to the people as actually congregated, the other re- 
lates to the extent of ground which the dwelling-houses of 
the members of one congregation occupy. Accordingly, the 
territory to which the bishop's charge extended, was always 
named, in the period I am speaking of, in Greek Tzagoutia, 
in Latin parochia, or rather parcscia, which answers to the 
English word parish, and means properly a neighborhood." 111 

In the sense above stated, the word in question is said to 
be used at least six hundred times in the writings of Euse- 
bius alone. Such continued to be the extent of the bishop's 
charge down to the fourth century. 

(b) It is admitted by Episcopalians themselves, that the 
diocese of a primitive bishop comprised only a single church. 

On this point the authority of the late Dr. Burton, regius- 
professor at Oxford, is equally explicit and unexceptionable. 
In his history of the church at the beginning of the second 
century, he says : — " The term diocese was not then known ; 

111 Campbell's Lectures, pp. 106, 107. 



EQUALITY OF BISHOPS AND PRESBYTERS. 203 

though there may have been instances where the care of 
more than one congregation was committed to a single bish- 
op, of which we have a very early example in all the Cretan 
churches being entrusted by Paul to Titus. The name 
which was generally applied to the flock of a single pastor, 
was one from which our present word parish is derived, 
which signified his superintendence over the inhabitants of 
a particular place." 112 

Again, at the commencement of the third century, " The 
term diocese, as has been observed in a former chapter, was 
of later introduction, and was borrowed by the church from 
the civil constitution of the empire. At the period which 
we are now considering, a bishop's diocese was more analo- 
gous to a modern parish, and such was the name which it 
bore. Each parish had, therefore, its own bishop, with a 
varying number of presbyters, or priests and deacons." 113 

" As for the word diocese, by which the bishop's flock is 
now expressed, I do not remember that ever I found it used 
in this sense by any of the ancients. But there is another 
word still retained by us, by which they frequently denomi- 
nated the bishop's cure ; and that is parish." 114 

To the same effect is also the authority of Campbell, 
and multitudes of others not of the Episcopal communion. 
" Every bishop had but one congregation or church. This 
is a remark which deserves your particular notice; as it re- 
gards an essential point in the constitution of the primitive 
church, a point which is generally admitted by those who 
can make any pretensions to the knowledge of Christian 
antiquities. . . Now as one bishop is invariably considered in 
the most ancient usage as having only one ixxlrjaia, church, 
it is manifest that his inspection, at first, was only over one 
parish." 115 Instead, therefore, of presiding over thousands 

112 History of the Christian Church, p. 179. 113 Ibid., pp. 263, 264. 
114 King's Primitive Church, p. 15. 
1,5 Campbell's Lectures, pp. 105, 106. 



204 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

of his fellow-men with an authority, which even princes 
might envy, this ancient bishop was nothing more than a 
humble parish minister, having the charge of some little flock 
over whom he had been duly appointed an overseer in the 
service of the chief Shepherd. 

(c) The Christians, under the charge of these ancient 
bishops, were accustomed to meet all in one place, like the 
people of a modern parish or congregation. 

This is most clearly evident from the fathers of the 
second, and even of the third century, such as Ignatius, 116 
Justin Martyr, Irenaeus, Tertullian and Cyprian. " Now, 
from the writings of those fathers, it is evident that the 
whole flock assembled in the same place em to oLvto, with 
their bishop and presbyters, as on other occasions, so in par- 
ticular, every Lord's-day, or every Sunday, as it was com- 
monly called, for the purposes of public worship, hearing the 
Scriptures read, and receiving spiritual exhortations. The 
perseverance in this practice is warmly recommended by the 
ancients, and urged on all the Christian brethren, from the 
consideration of the propriety there is, that those of the 
same church and parish, and under the same bishop, should 
all join in one prayer and one supplication, as people who 
have one mind and one hope. For, it is argued, ' if the 
prayer of one or two have great efficacy, how much more 
efficacious must that be which is made by the bishop and the 
whole church. He, therefore, who doth not assemble with 
him is denominated proud and self-condemned.' 117 Again, 
as there was but one place of meeting, so there was but one 

116 For a purpose like the present, we may safely appeal to Igna- 
tius ; for though the work may be reasonably suspected to have been 
interpolated to aggrandize the Episcopal order, it was never suspected 
of any interpolation with a view to lessen it. 

117 Ei ydg. evog xal dsvrtfjov TTQoobvyjj Tooavtrjv inyvv l'%si, rruoot 
fw./J.ov i\ Tt tov tmuy.oTTOv ytal ndar/q ixxfo/oi'ag ; O ovv fit) tgyojus- 
vo? trrl to auroj xul £e«>roj> §U«oivtV. — Ep. ad Eph. c. 5. 



EQUALITY OF BISHOPS AND PRESBYTERS. 205 

communion table or altar, as they sometimes metaphorically 
called it. ' There is but one altar/ said Ignatius, ' for there 
is but one bishop ; ' 118 and accordingly, one place of worship." 
To this may be added the authority of Still ingfleet. " For 
although when the churches increased, the occasional meet- 
ings were frequent in several places, yet still there was but 
one church, and one altar, and one baptistry, and one bishop, 
with many presbyters assisting him ; and this is so very plain 
in antiquity, as to the churches planted by the apostles them- 
selves in several parts, that none but a stranger to the history 
of the church can ever call it in question." 119 

We have here another illustration of the parochial Epis- 
copacy, which, in the ancient church, restricted the labors 
of the minister of Christ to a single church and congre- 
gation. 

(d) All under the bishop's charge were, in some instances, 
as familiarly known to him as are the people of a parish to 
their pastor. 

Polycarp, for example, bishop of Smyrna, is exhorted by 
Ignatius to know all of his church by name, even the men- 
servants, and maid-servants ; to take care of the widows 
within his diocese ; to take cognizance personally of all 
marriages ; and to suffer nothing to escape his notice. 120 

All this evidently requires of the bishop a personal acquaint- 
ance with the people of his charge, even more familiar, and 
a personal supervision over them more minute^than that of 
the pastor of a single parish in any of our cities. Even the 

us "Ev frvGiaGxriQiov oh sig tTtioxoirog. Ep. ad Phil. c. 8. Camp- 
bell's Lectures, p. 109. 

119 Stillingfleet, Serm. against Separat. p. 27, cited by Clarkson, 

P- 17. 

120 'jjg ovo/uaro? ndvrag liJtsi. JovXovg nal oovlag /lit} virsQTjcpd- 
vw X.rjQ(u {itf d/Lisfaiod'ujoav. IlQlirst, Se rdig ya/uovot not rdig ya- 
/xovfjiivaig, /nszd yvwfirjg rov emonoTiov %f\v i'vcooiv noieia&ai. Mtj~ 
§tv avsv yvoifiyg oov yivtG&oj. — Ignatius ad Polycarp, c. 4, 5. 

18 



206 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

bishop of Tyre had a diocese so small that he had a personal 
knowledge of every Christian within it. 121 Carthage, again, 
was one of the largest cities in the world ; and yet Cyprian, the 
bishop of that city, made it a duty to preserve a familiar ac- 
quaintance with all his people, and to provide for the needy 
and destitute among them. 122 To such primitive Episcopacy 
who can object ? 

(e) So many bishops were found in a single territory of 
limited extent, that no one could have exercised jurisdiction 
beyond the bounds of a single parish. 

Take, for example, a single province, that of Africa ; and 
in doing this, we are happy to avail ourselves of the inqui- 
ries of another. " The testimony of Du Pin on this point, 
himself a prelatist, is invaluable. He describes, in the first 
place, the ancient province of Africa, as nearly commen- 
surate with the modern Barbary States, and then proceeds to 
remark as follows : 

" ' All this tract, both before and after the subjection of 
the Romans, contained an almost countless number of peo- 
ple. There were found cities, towns, boroughs, military 
stations (castdlis), and villages, both of natives and colonists, 
in great number ; and, by the fertility of the soil, and abun- 
dance of its produce, as well as by mercantile trade, it be- 
came very wealthy. Hence we find so great a multitude of 
Christians in these regions, to govern whom were appointed 
very many bishops, far more numerous, indeed, and nearer 
together, than in some other parts of the Christian w T orld. 

121 Schoene, Geschichtsforschungen, Bd. III. S. 336. 

122 Cumque ego vos pro me vicarios miserim ut expungeretis ne- 
cessitates fratrum nostrorum sumptibus, si qui vellent suas artes ex- 
ercere, additamento quantum satis esset desideria eorum juvaretis, 
simul etiam et aetates eorum et conditiones et merita discerneretis ; 
ut etiam nunc ego, cui cura incumbit ornncs optimd nosse et dignos 
quosque, et hu miles et mites ad ecclesiasticae administrations officia 
promoverem. — Ep. 38. p. 51. 






i 



EQUALITY OF BISHOPS AND PRESBYTERS. 207 

For in these parts it was customary to appoint bishops not 
only in great cities, but in villages, or villas, and in small 
cities (in vicis aut villis et in modicis civitatibus) ; which 
was guarded against by the 57th canon of the Council of 
Laodicea, and the 7th canon of that of Sardica. But that 
rule obtained, not in Africa, where it is on record that bish- 
ops were ordained not only in great cities, but in all the 
towns (in cunctis oppidis), and not unfrequently in villages 
and military stations (in vicis et castellis) ; which multitude 
of bishops' Sees, that had sprung up, even from the very first 
rise of the African churches, was increased by the emula- 
tion of the Catholics and Donatists.' 123 

" Such are the statements of one of the learned histor- 
ians, one whose judgment is universally respected. Such, 
too, must be the convictions of every one who makes him- 
self acquainted with the surviving documents of the African 
churches. Let any one turn over the pages of the Minutes 
of trie Conference (gesta collationis) between the Catholics 
and Donatists at Carthage, in A. D. 411, at which 565 bish- 
ops were present, and he must come to the conclusion that 
Mons. Du Pin has told the truth. 

" So strong is the evidence from this quarter, that Bing- 
ham is constrained to admit, that ' during the time of the 
schism of the Donatists, many new bishoprics were erected 
in very small towns in Africa ; as appears from the acts of 
the Collation of Carthage, where the Catholics and Dona- 
tists mutually charge each other with the practice; that they 
divided single bishoprics sometimes into three or four ; and 
made bishops in country towns and villages, to augment the 
numbers of their parties.' 124 

" It will be observed, that this practice was pursued as 

123 Du Pin's Sacred Geography of Africa, prefixed to his edition 
of " The Seven Books of St. Optatus, bishop of Mileve in Africa," 
on the schism of the Donatists, published at Paris, A. D. 1700, p. 57. 

12 * Bingham's Antiq. of Christ. Church, B. 2. c. 12. § 3. 



208 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

well by the Orthodox as their opponents. Wherever a few 
people could be gathered together, they organized them into 
a church, and placed a bishop over them. And when that 
church became very numerous they divided it again (except 
in the great cities), just as we are accustomed to do at the 
present day. There was nothing in the idea of a church, or 
of a bishop, that forbade this practice. Nay, it was pro- 
vided for by an ecclesiastical law of the province. The 
fifth canon of the second council of Carthage (A. D. 390) 
provides, that ' if, in the course of time, as religion prospers, 
any people of God should be so multiplied as to desire to have 
a rector of their own, they should have a bishop, in case they 
obtained the consent of him to whose authority the diocese 
was subject.' 

" Du Pin says, * We have drawn out of ancient docu- 
ments the names of six hundred and ninety bishoprics in 
Africa.' 125 He annexes a catalogue of their names, and re- 

125 Georg. Sac. Africae,p. 59. Schoene says, Geschichtsforschun- 
gen, Bd. II]. 335, that in the time of Augustine there were nine 
hundred bishops in Africa. The number is evidently made out in the 
following manner. Augustine, in his minutes of the first day's con- 
ference between the Catholics and Donatists, says, that of the Cath- 
olics, 286 answered to their names, 20 subscribed not, 120 were 
absent, detained by reason of their age, infirmity, or other causes ; 
and that 60 of their bishoprics were vacant, making a total of 426 
bishops and 486 bishoprics. 

Of the Donatists, 279 were present, many more than 120 were 
absent, and many of their bishoprics were vacant. — Opera, Vol. IX. 
p. 374, F. 375, 376, A. Antwerp, 1700. 

Augustine also states, that the Maximinianists were condemned by 
a council of 310 of the Donatists. Contra Parmeniam, Lib. l.Tom. 
9. c. 18. p. 15, B. Contra Crescon. Don. Lib. 3. c. 52. p. 315, E. 
Lib. 4. c. 7. p. 331, D. The Donatists, moreover, themselves boast- 
ed that they had more than 400 bishops in Africa. Post. Coll. c. 24, 
p. 411, D. In addition to all these, the Maximinianists afford another 
legion of bishops in this same province, 100 or more of whom con- 
demned Priminianus. Contra Crescon. Don. Lib. 4. c. 6. p. 331, D. 
Post. Coll. c. 30. We are now prepared to make up the roll of Af- 



EQUALITY OF BISHOPS AND PRESBYTERS. 209 

fers in every instance to the document or documents where 
they are found. "With reason, therefore, he says, * there is 
not one of these that has not at some time a bishop, as may 
be gathered from ecclesiastical documents.' " 126 

(f) The charge of a primitive bishop is known in many 
instances not to have equalled that of a modern presbyter or 
pastor. 

Bishops were found in villages and military stations in 
Africa, as we have just seen. Ischyrus was made bishop of 
a very small village, containing but few inhabitants. 127 Paul, 
one of the famous council of Nice, was only bishop of a 
fort, cpQovQiov, near the river Euphrates. 128 Eulogius and 
Barses, monks of Edessa, had each no city, but only a mon- 
astery for a diocese; or rather their title was merely hono- 
rary, an empty name, with which no charge was connect- 
ed. 129 Others, again, were bishops of cities where there 
were no Christians whatever, and but few in the country 
round about. 130 

The council of Sardica, c. 7, and of Laodicea, c. 57, in 
the fourth century, denounced the custom of ordaining 
bishops " in villages and small cities, lest the authority of a 
bishop should be brought into contempt." But a hundred 
years later, the custom still prevailed to a considerable ex- 
tent. Even Gregory Nazianzen, one of the most learned 

rican bishops. Catholics, 426, Donatists, 400, Maximinianists, 100. 
Total, 926, — to say nothing of vacant Sees. In such astonishing pro- 
fusion are these dioceses, these Episcopal Sees, scattered broad-cast 
over the single province of Africa. 

126 New York Evangelist, Vol. XIV. p. 182. 1843. 

127 Ko')/llt] ^Qayvxdzrjj y.al ollyojv dv&QoMtov. — Athans. ApoL. 2. Vol. 
I. p. 200. 

128 Theodoret, Eccl. Hist. Lib. 1. c. 6. 

129 O'l zed imanoTioj a^icpo) vatsqov lysvi&rjVy ov Troksojg xvvcg oXXd 
rtfiijg h'vs%£v. . . . %£tQOTov?]d'£VTsg iv rotg Idi'otg juovaoTTjQi'oig. — Sozo- 
men, Eccl. Hist. Lib. 6. c. 34. p. 691. 

130 Schoene, Geschichtsforschungen, Bd. III. S. S36. 

18* 



210 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

and eloquent men of his age, worthy to have been " a pro- 
fessor of eloquence," after having studied in Caesarea, in 
Alexandria, and in Athens, was bishop, in the last half of the 
fourth century, first of Zazime, " a dismal" place ; and 
afterwards of Nazianzum, nolecog ivxelovg, vilis oppidi, an 
inferior place. 131 Even in the middle of the fifth century, 
diocesan Episcopacy was but partially established. In some 
countries, " there were bishops over many cities," but in 
others, they were still " consecrated in villages," xcopaig. 132 

But we need not enlarge. If any one wishes for further 
information on this point, he has only to refer to Clarkson on 
Primitive Episcopacy, an antiquated work, evincing a re- 
markable familiarity with the records of antiquity, in which 
facts, almost innumerable, have been brought together, all 
tending to show that the bishop of the primitive church had 
a charge no greater than a curate, or presbyter, or parish 
minister. 

Grant then to prelacy all her claims. Run back her ' un- 
broken succession' to these days of primitive simplicity, and 
it leads you up, not to an Episcopal palace, but to the cot- 
tage, the cell, it may be, of an obscure curate. The mo- 
dern bishop has only deceived himself with a name. While 
he reads of ancient bishops, he idly dreams of Episcopal 
powers and prerogatives that were unknown in the church 
until the days of Constantine the Great. 

It is a sophism often used with effect, deceiving the sim- 
ple and the wise, to surround an ancient and venerable name 
with modern associations. So delusive are our comparisons 
of that which is unknown with what is well known ; so de- 
ceptive our judgment of the past by the present. Tityrus, 
the poet's simple swain, foolishly thought Rome herself just 
such another as his own Mantua, where the shepherds were 
wont to drive their tender lambs. So he had seen whelps, 

131 Socrates, Eccl. Hist. Lib. 4. c. 26. p. 242. 

132 Sozomen, Eccl. Hist. Lib. 7. c. 19. p. 734. 



EQUALITY OF BISHOPS AND PRESBYTERS. 211 

like dogs ; so kids, like goats. Thus he was wont to com- 
pare great things with small. But what was his surprise to 
see the imperial city rearing her head as high above others 
as the cypress rises above the limber shrubs. 133 He had de- 
ceived himself by his false comparisons. A similar decep- 
tion, though in its effects precisely the reverse of this, we 
practice upon ourselves when we bring a modern, into com- 
parison with a primitive bishop. But on examination the 
delusion vanishes. The far-spreading domains of the dio- 
cesan, shrink into a little hamlet; the proud Episcopal pa- 
lace becomes a poor parsonage; and the lofty prelate, a hum- 
ble presbyter, the pastor of a little flock. 

The bearings of this view of the subject upon prelacy are 
obvious. 

1. It denies the exclusive virtue of Episcopal ordination. 

The relations of the foregoing view to the exclusive va* 
lidity of Episcopal ordination, are clearly set forth in the fol- 
lowing passage from Clarkson, himself an Episcopalian : 

" Hereby, also, some mistakes about Episcopal ordina- 
tions, of ill consequence, may be rectified. A bishop, in 
the best ages of Christianity, was no other than the pastor of 
a single church. A pastor of a single congregation is now 
as truly a bishop. They were duly ordained in those ages, 
who were set apart for the work of the ministry by the pas- 
tor of a single church, with the concurrence of some assis- 
tants. Why they should not be esteemed to be duly ordain- 
ed, who are accordingly set apart by a pastor of a single 
church now, I can discern no reason, after I have looked 

133 Urbem quam dicunt Romam, Meliboee, putavi 

Stultus, ego huic nostrae similem, quo saepe solemus 

Pastores ovium teneros depellere foetus. 

Sic canibus catulos similes, sic matribus haedos 

Noram ; sic parvis componere magna solebam. 

Verum haec tantum alias inter caput extulit urbes, 

Quantum lenta solent inter viburna cupressi. — Virgil, But. 1. 



212 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

every way for it. Let something be assigned which will 
make an essential difference herein ; otherwise they that 
judge such ordinations here, and in other reformed churches, 
to be nullities, will hereby declare all the ordinations in the 
ancient church for three or four hundred years, to be null 
and void, and must own the dismal consequences that ensue 
thereof. They that will have no ordinations but such as are 
performed by one who has many churches under him, main- 
tain a novelty never known nor dreamt of in the ancient 
churches, while their state was tolerable. They may as well 
say the ancient church had never a bishop (if their interest 
did not hinder, all the reason they make use of in this case 
would lead them to it), as deny that a reformed pastor has 
no power to ordain, because he is not a bishop. He has 
Episcopal ordination, even such as the canons require, being 
set apart by two or three pastors at least, who are as truly 
diocesans as the ancient bishops, for some whole ages." 134 

2. It exposes also the futility of the doctrine of apostoli- 
cal succession. 

" The theory is, that each bishop, from the apostolic 
times, has received in his consecration a mysterious ' gift,' 
and also transmits to every priest in his ordination a myste- 
rious ' gift,' indicated in the respective offices by the awful 
words, ' Receive the Holy Ghost ;' that on this the right of 
priests to assume their functions, and the preternatural grace 
of the sacraments administered by them, depends ; that bish- 
ops, once consecrated, instantly become a sort of Leyden jar 
of spiritual electricity, and are invested with the remarkable 
property of transmitting the ' gift ' to others ; that this has 
been the case from the primitive age till now ; that this high 
gift has been incorruptibly transmitted through the hands of 
impure, profligate, heretical ecclesiastics, as ignorant and 
flagitious as any of their lay cotemporaries; that, in fact, 

134 Primitive Episcopacy, pp. 182, 183. London, 1688. 



EQUALITY OF BISHOPS AND PRESBYTERS. 213 

these ' gifts ' are perfectly irrespective of the moral character 
and qualifications both of bishop and priest, and reside in 
equal integrity in a Bonner or a Cranmer, — a parson Adams 
or a parson Trulliber." 135 

Now, we ask, were these countless multitudes of bishops 
all episcopally ordained, scattered through the earth, as they 
were, from Britain to the remotest Indies ; in cities, towns, 
villages, forts, military stations, monasteries, and we know not 
where ? Can these mysterious ' gifts ' and graces be so dif- 
fused abroad over the earth, and bandied about from hand 
to hand, without the hazard that, amidst a thousand contingen- 
cies, they may have fallen away or lost their ethereal power ? 
Has no graceless hypocrite crept in unawares among the 
Lord's anointed, and, with unholy hand, essayed these awful 
mysteries, vainly assuming to transmit by uncanonized rites, 
this heavenly grace ? Has no link been broken in this mys- 
terious chain, stretching onward from the distant age of the 
apostles down to the present 1 Has no irregularity disturbed 
the succession, no taint of heresy marred the purity of its 
descent ? Believe it who can. 136 

135 Edinburgh Rev. April, 1843, pp. 269, 270. 

136 (( \y e can imagine the perplexity of a presbyter thus cast in 
doubt as to whether or not he has ever had the invaluable ' gift ' of 
apostolical succession conferred upon him. As that ' gift ' is neither 
tangible nor visible, the subject neither of experience nor conscious- 
ness : — as it cannot be known by any 'effects' produced by it (for 
that mysterious efficacy which attends the administration of rites at 
its possessor's hands, is, like the gift which qualifies him to adminis- 
ter them, also invisible and intangible), — he may imagine, unhappy 
man! that he has been ' regenerating ' infants by baptism, when he 
has been simply sprinkling them with water. ' What is the matter ?' 
the spectator of his distractions might ask. ' What have you lost ?' 
4 Lost !' would be the reply ; ' 1 fear 1 have lost my apostolical suc- 
cession, or rather my misery is, that 1 do not know and cannot tell 
whether I ever had it to lose !' It is of no use here to suggest the 
usual questions, ' When did you see it last ? When were you last 
conscious of possessing it ?' What a peculiar property is that, of 
which, though so invaluable, — nay, on which the whole efficacy of 



214 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

3. It is fatal to the claims of high Episcopacy to be re- 
garded as the " one catholic and apostolic church." 

This holy catholic church, one and invisible, deriving 
divine rights by regular succession from the apostles, — where 
or what is it?. Who, this house of Aaron, that have kept all 
the while the sacred fire of the altar, borne up and defended 
the tabernacle of the Lord, and guarded thus from all profane 
intrusion the ark of the covenant ? This royal priesthood, 
these that were at first created, and have always continued, 
wholly a right seed, — who, or what are they ? What form of 
error, we seriously ask, what species of delusion, what kind 
of schism, what creature of sin, has not, at some time, found 
a place within this same immaculate church, as a component 
part of this strange Episcopal unity, — a unity only of chaos 
and infinite confusion? The whole system of high, exclu- 
sive Episcopacy is anything but a semblance of that apos- 
tolic church of which it so proudly boasts. In its doctrines, 
in its government, and in all the apparatus of its canons and 
its traditions, what has it now in common with the church, 
as she was in the days of the apostles ? This " one, holy, 
catholic, and apostolic church" of prelacy, — like the famous 
ship of ancient Grecian story, which by continued decay 
and repairs, came to be so changed at last that nothing of 

the Christian ministry depends, — a man has no positive evidence to 
show whether he ever had it or not ! which, if ever conferred, was 
conferred without his knowledge ; and which if it could be taken 
away, would still leave him ignorant, not only when, where and how 
the theft was committed, but whether it had ever been committed or 
not ! The sympathizing friend might, probably, remind him, that aa 
he was not sure he had ever had it, so, -perhaps, he still had it without 
knowing it. ' Perhaps /' he would reply ; ' but it is certainty I want.' 
'Well,' it might be said, 'Mr. Gladstone assures you, that, on the 
most moderate computation, your chances are as 8000 to 1 that you 
have it !' ' Pish !' the distracted man would exclaim, ' what does Mr. 
Gladstone know about the matter ?' And, truly, to that query we 
know not well what answer the friend could make." — Edinburgh 
Rev., p. 271. 



EQUALITY OF BISHOPS AND PRESBYTERS. 215 

the original remained, — she has, indeed, still the same name; 
but all else, how changed ! One by one, her every part has 
gone to decay, and given place to something else. And she 
lies now at her moorings, with scarcely a beam, or plank, or 
fragment of her shrouds remaining from the original and 
noble frame-work of the great architect ; yet proudly claim- 
ing still an exclusive right to the honored name which she 
so much dishonors. This " catholic, apostolic church," — 
pray, in what consists her identity with the church of the 
holy apostles? 

" A real, living unity, and a well regulated liberty" says 
Riddle, " characterized the early constitution of the church. 
But liberty was afterwards sacrificed to unity ; and this unity 
itself degenerated into a merely external, forced, and dead 
union, — which became subservient to the purposes of op- 
pression, and to the growth of the hierarchy." 

4. The original equality of bishops and presbyters contin- 
ued to be acknowledged, from the rise of the Episcopal hie- 
rarchy down to the time of the Reformation. 

The claims of prelatical Episcopacy were attacked in the 
fifth century with great spirit by Jerome, who denied the su- 
periority of bishops, giving at the same time an explanation 
of the origin of this groundless distinction, widely different 
from that of divine right by apostolical authority. Several 
passages from this author have already been given under an- 
other head, to which we subjoin the following, with a transla- 
tion, and an analysis by Dr. Mason. 

" Thus he lays down doctrine and fact relative to the 
government of the church, in his commentary on Titus 1: 5. 

" That thou shouldest ordain presbyters in every city, as I 
had appointed thee. xzl ' What sort of presbyters ought to be 

137 « q u ; q Ua lj s Presbyter debeat ordinari, in consequentibus disse- 
rens hoc ait: Si qui est sine crimine, unius uxoris vir," et caetera : 
postea intulit, " Oportet Episcopum sine crimine esse, tanquam Dei 



216 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

ordained he shows afterwards. If any be blameless, the hus- 
band of one wife, etc. and then adds, for a bishop must be 
blameless, as the steward of God, etc. A presbyter, therefore, 
is the same as a bishop : and before there were, by the instiga- 
tion of the devil, parties in religion ; and it was said among dif- 
ferent people, lam of Paid, and I of Apollos , and I of Cephas, 
the churches were governed by the joint counsel of the presby- 
ters. But afterwards, when every one accounted those whom 
he baptized as belonging to himself and not to Christ, it was de- 

dispensatorem." Idem est ergo Presbyter, qui et Episcopus, et ante- 
quam diaboli instinctu, studia in religione fierent, et diceretur in po- 
pulis : "Ego sura Pauli, ego Apollo, ego autem Cephae :" commvni 
Presbyterorum consilio ecclesiae gubernabantur. Postquam vero unus- 
quisque eos, quos baptizaverat, suos putabat esse, non Christi : in toto 
orbe decretum est, ut unus de Presbyteris electus super poneretur caeteris 
ad quern omnis ecclesiae cura pertineret, et schismatum semina tolleren- 
tur. Putet aliquis non scripturarum, sed nostram, esse sententiam 
Episcopum et Presbyterum unura esse ; etaliud aetatis, aliud esse no- 
men officii; relegat Apostoli ad Philipenses verba dicentis ; Paulus 
etTimotheus servi Jesu Christi, omnibus Sanctis in Christo Jesu, qui 
sunt Philippis, cum Episcopis et Diaconis, gratia vobis et pax, et reli- 
qua. Philippi una est urbs Macedoniae, et certe in una civitate plures 
ut nuncupantur, Episcopi esse non poterant. Sed quia, eosdem Episco- 
pos illo tempore quos et Presbyteros apellabant, propterea indifferentur 
de Episcopis quasi de Presbyteris est locutus. Adhuc hoc alicui vi- 
deatur ambiguum, nisi altero testimonio comprobetur. In Actibus 
Apostolorum scriptum est, quod cum venisset Apostolus Miletum 
miserit Ephesum, et vocaverit Presbyteros ecclesiae ejusdem, quibus 
postea inter caetera sit locutus ; attendite vobis ct omni gregi in quoros 
Spiritus Sanctus posuit Episcopos, pascere Ecclcsiam Domini, quam ac- 
quisivit per sanguinem suum. Et hoc diligentiusobservate, quo modo 
unius civitafis Ephesi Presbyteros vocans, postea eosdem Episcopos 
dixerit. — Haec propterea, ut ostenderemus apvd veteres eosdem fuisse 
Presbyteros et Episcopos. Paulatim vero, ut dissentionum plantaria 
evellerentur, ad unum omnera solicitudinem esse delatam. — Sicut er- 
go Presbyteri sciurtt se ex ecclesiae consuetudinc ei, qui sibi propositus 
fuerit, esse subjectos, ita Episcopi noverintse magis consuetudine quam 
dispositionis dominicac veritate, Presbyteris esse majores, Hieronymi 
Com. in Tit. I. 1. Opp. Vol. IV. p. 413, ed. Paris. 1693—1706. The 
same may be found in Rothe, S. 209. 



EQUALITY OF BISHOPS AND PRESBYTERS. 217 

creed throughout the whole world that one, chosen from among 
the presbyters, should be put over the rest, and that the whole 
care of the church should be committed to him, and the seeds 
of schism taken away. 

" ' Should any one think that this is only my own private 
opinion, and not the doctrine of the Scriptures, let him read 
the words of the apostle in his epistle to the Philippians i 
" Paul and Timotheus, servants of Jesus Christ, to all the 
saints in Christ Jesus, which are at Philippi, with the bishops 
and deacons," etc. Philippi, is a single city of Macedonia* 
and certainly in one city there could not be several bishops 
as they are now styled; but as they, at that time, called the 
very same persons bishops whom they called presbyters, the 
apostle has spoken without distinction of bishops as pres- 
byters. 

" • Should this matter yet appear doubtful to any one, un- 
less it be proved by an additional testimony, it is written in 
the Acts of the Apostles, that when Paul had come to Mile- 
turn, he sent to Ephesus and called the presbyters of that 
church, and among other things said to them, " Take heed 
to yourselves and to all the flock in which the Holy Spirit 
hath made you bishops." Take particular notice, that call- 
ing the presbyters of the single city of Ephesus, he after- 
wards names the same persons bishops.' After further quo- 
tations from the Epistle to the Hebrews, and from Peter, he 
proceeds : ' Our intention in these remarks is to show, that 
among the ancients, presbyters and bishops were the very 
same. But that by little and little, that the plants of 
dissension might be plucked up, the whole concern was de- 
volved upon an individual. As the presbyters, therefore, know 
that they are subjected, by the custom of the church, to 
him who is set over them, so let the bishops know that they 
are greater than presbyters, more by custom than by any 
real appointment of Christ.' " 138 

138 Mason's Works, Vol. III. pp. 225—228. 
19 



218 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

Again : " with the ancients, bishops and presbyters may 
have been one and the same, because the one denotes dignity 
in office, the other, superiority in age." 139 

"Here is an account of the origin and progress of Episco- 
pacy by a father whom the Episcopalians themselves admit 
to have been the most able and learned man of his age; and 
how contradictory it is to their own account the reader will 
be at no loss to perceive, when he shall have followed us 
through an analysis of its several parts. 

(a) Jerome expressly denies the superiority of bishops to 
presbyters, by divine right. To prove his assertion on this 
head, he goes directly to the Scriptures; and argues as the 
advocates of parity do, from the interchangeable titles of bish- 
op and presbyter ; from the directions given to them without 
the least intimation of difference in their authority ; and from 
the powers of presbyters, undisputed in his day. 

(6) Jerome states it as a historical fact, that this govern- 
ment of the churches by presbyters alone, continued until, for 
the avoiding of scandalous quarrels and schisms, it was thought 
expedient to alter it. 

(c) Jerome states it as a historical fact, that this change 
in the government of the church, this creation of a superior 
order of ministers, took place, not at once, but by degrees, — 
' Paulatim,' says he, ' by little and little.' 

(d) Jerome states, as historical facts, that the elevation of 
one presbyter over the others was a human contrivance ; was 
not imposed by authority, but crept in by custom ; and that 
the presbyters of his day knew this very well. 

(e) Jerome states it as a historical fact, that the first bish- 
ops were made by the presbyters themselves, and consequent- 
ly they could neither have, nor communicate any authority 
above that of presbyters. ' Afterwards,' says he, ' to prevent 
schism, one was elected to preside over the rest.' Elected 

139 Apud veteres iidem episcopi et presbuteri fuerint ; quia illud 
nomen dignitatis, est ; hoc, aetatis. — Ep. ad Oceanum, Vol. IV. p. 648. 



EQUALITY OF BISHOPS AND PRESBYTERS. 219 

and commissioned by whom? By the presbyters ; for he im- 
mediately gives you a broad fact which it is impossible to ex- 
plain away. ' At Alexandria,' he tells, you, ' from the evange- 
list Mark to the bishops Heraclas and Dionysius,' i. e., till 
about the middle of the third century, ■ the presbyters always 
chose one of their number, placed him in a superior station, 
and gave him the title of bishop.' 

" It is inconceivable how Jerome should tell the bishops 
to their faces that Christ never gave them any superiority 
over the presbyters ; that custom was their only title ; and 
that the presbyters were perfectly aware of this, unless he 
was supported by facts which they were unable to contradict. 
Their silence under his challenges is more than a presump- 
tion that they found it wise to let him alone." 140 

The testimony of Jerome affords an authentic record of 
the change that was introduced into the government of the 
church, and the causes that led to this change, by which the 
original constitution was wholly subverted. It was in his 
day a known and acknowledged fact, that prelacy had no 
authority from Christ or his apostles, — no divine right, to sus- 
tain its high pretensions. " The presbyters know that they 
are subject to their bishops," not by divine right or apostoli- 
cal succession, but " by the custom of the church." And to 
the same effect, is the admission of his contemporary, Augus- 
tine, the renowned bishop of Hippo, which we give in the 
words of a distinguished prelate of the church of England, 
as quoted by Aynton. ]41 "The office of a bishop is above 
the office of a priest [presbyter], not by the authority of 
Scripture, but after the names of honor, which through the 
custom of the church have now obtained." 142 Episcopacy, 

a° Mason's Works, Vol. III. pp. 233—251. 

141 Jewel, Defence of his Apology, pp. 122, 123. 

142 Quanquam secundum honorum vocabula quae jam ecclesiae usus 
obtiuuit, episcopatus presbyterio major sit; tamen in multis rebus 
Augustinus Hieronymo minor est. — Ep. ad Hier., 19, alias 83, §33, 
Op Vol. II. col. 153. 



220 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

according to this eminent and ancient prelate, is the result of 
custom, without any scriptural warrant whatever. 

This is in accordance, also, with the authority of Hilary, 
which has been given above. What a note of triumphant 
exultation would prelacy raise, did all antiquity offer half as 
much in defence of her lofty claims as these fathers furnish 
against them. 

The most distinguished of the Greek fathers, also, concur 
with those of the Latin church, in their views, of the iden- 
tity of bishops and presbyters. Chrysostom, A. D. 407, in 
commenting upon the apostles' salutation of the bishops of 
Philippi, exclaims : "How is this? Were there many bishops 
in one city ? By no means ; but he calls the presbyters by 
this name ; for at that time both were so called. The bishop 
was also called diaxovog, servant, minister ; for, writing to 
Timothy, who was bishop, he says, ' make full proof of thy 
diaxoviav, ministry.' He also instructs him to lay hands, as 
a bishop, suddenly on no man. And again : ' which was 
given thee by the laying on of the hands of the presbytery.' 
But presbyters [as such] did not lay hands on the bishop. 
Again, writing to Titus, he says, ' for this cause I left thee in 
Crete, that thou shouldst ordain presbyters in every city as I 
had commanded thee.' ' If any one be blameless, the hus- 
band of one wife.' This he says of a bishop ; for he imme- 
diately proceeds to add, ' a bishop must be blameless, as the 
steward of God, not self-willed.' Wherefore, as I said, pres- 
byters were anciently called bishops and stewards of Christ, 
and bishops were called presbyters. For this reason, even 
now, many bishops speak of their fellow-presbyter, and fel- 
low-minister ; and finally, the name of bishop and presbyter 
is given to each indiscriminately. ," 143 Again : with reference 

143 2vv inioxonoLG xal 8iaxovoig,Tl tovio ; ftiug tioXemq noXXol 
enlaxoTioi i)fiav ; Ovda^iojg' aXXu xovg 7ioeai3vTSQOvc oviwg iy.uls- 
ve' Toif yaq riag ixoivojvovv zolg ovofAOtat, xal diaxovog o iniaxo- 



EQUALITY OF BISHOPS AND PRESBYTERS. 221 

to Paul, in 1 Tim. 3: 8, Chrysostom says, that " after discours- 
ing of bishops, and showing what qualities they should pos- 
sess, and from what things they ought to abstain, the apostle 
proceeds immediately to speak of deacons, passing by the 
order of presbyters. Why so ? Because there is not much 
distinction between them and bishops. For they also are set 
for the instruction and government of the church. What 
he had said of bishops was also applicable to presbyters; 
they have the superiority merely in the imposition of hands, 
and in this respect alone take precedence of the presby- 
ters." 144 This was said in relation to the time at which Chry- 
sostom wrote. Even at that late period this eminent prelate 

nog sXiytTO. Aia tovto ygdqpcov xal Ttfio&sco sXsys' ti\v duxxo- 
viuv aov nXrjgocpogrjaov, sniaxono) ovtl. ovu ydg snlaxonog r\v y 
cpr t al ngog aviov ytigag Tayswg [xrfitvl innl&si' xal ndXiv' o 
sdo&Tj aoi (Asia ini&sasojg twv ysigoiv tov ngtafivTtglov ovx av 
ds ngsafivitgoi snlaxonov tytigoicvrjaav. Kal ndXiv ngog TItov 
ygdcpwv cprjal' tovtov ydgiv xaxtXindv as sv KgriTjj, Xva xaTaaTy\- 
aijg xaxd noXiv ngtafivTsgovg, w? eyw aoi disTa^dfirjV' si rig avsy- 
y.Xi]Tog, fxiag yvvo.iv.og avr t g' a ntgl tov smaxonov cprjcrl. Kal 
slnojv Tavxa sv&swg inr t yayt' dti yag tov snlaxonov aviyxXtjTOV 
sivai, wg Osov or/.ov6[iov, (ir t av&ddt]. "Onto ovv sqptjv, xal 61 
ngtafiintgoi to naXaiov sxaXovvxo snlaxonoi xal diaxovot tov 
XgiaTov,xal ol snlaxonoi ngtafiuTtgoi. o&tv xal vvv noXXol avfi- 
ngtafivTtgm inlaxonoi ygdcpovai, xal avrdiaxorco' Xomov ds to 
IdiaQov exdaTO) unovtvsurjiai ovo\ia, o snlaxonog xal o ngsa^vxs- 
gog. — Chrysostom, Ep. ad Phil. Vol. XI. p. 194. 

144 AiaXsyopsvog ntgl inia/.onov xal yagaxTr\glaag avTovg, xal 
SLJiwv Ttva (A.sv tytiv, tIvojv ds ansyta&ai zgi], xal to twj> ngtafiv- 
tsowv Ti'/y^ia d cp tig, tig Toi'g diaxovovg y.tTsri7}8r]as. Tl dy^noTSj 
oti oil noXv [tsaov avrwv xal twv iniaxonojv. Kal yag xal av- 
Tol oioaaxaXlav tlalv dvadtdty^svoi xal n goaTaa lav Tijg ixxXrjaiag' 
xal a ntgl smaxonwv tins, Tavxa xal ngsafivTsgoig agfioxxsi' xy 
ydg ytigoiovla povj) vntgfitfiijxuai xal xovioj povov doxovai nXs- 
ovtxTtiv Tovg ngtafivxigovg. — Ibid., Ep. ad Tim. 1, Vol. XL p. 604 
19* 



222 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

recognizes only a trifling distinction between bishop and 
presbyter. 

Theodoret, also, who lived only a few years later than 
Chrysostom, exhibits substantially the same sentiments. In 
relation to the salutation of Paul to the Philippians, c. 1 : 1, 
he says, " the apostle addresses himself to the priesthood and 
to the saints who are under them, in which term he includes 
all who had received baptism. But he calls the presbyters 
bishops; for they had, at that time the same names, as we 
learn from the history of the Acts of the Apostles." The 
writer then proceeds to remark upon the presbyters of Ephe- 
sus, Acts 20 : 17, who in verse 28 are called bishops. From 
this he goes on to speak of the instructions given to Titus, 
who was left in Crete, to ordain presbyters in every city ; but 
on being directed what persons to choose, he is told that " a 
bishop must be blameless," etc. He then adverts to the fact 
that the apostle speaks only of two orders, bishops and dea- 
cons, without any mention of presbyters ; and of the impos- 
sibility of supposing that several bishops could have borne 
rule in the same city. After this, he proceeds to say ; "so 
that it is evident that he denominates the presbyters, bish- 
ops." 145 This sentiment he repeats in remarking upon Phil. 

145 FLokji xa xax avxov smaxiXXsi, xoTg ds xr t g hgwcrvvrjg r^ioj- 
fiivoig xal xolg ano tovtcov noipaivousvoig. dylovg yag xovg xov 
^anxla^iaxog a%iw&ivxag oivofxaasv, STiiaxonovg ds Tovg ngsa/jv- 
zsgovg xaXsi, dpcpoxsgu yag si/ov xax ixuvov xov xaigov xd ovo- 
fiaxa. Kal xovxo i]^idg xal t] xwv Ilga^sojv iuxogla diddaxsi. 
JBlgrjxcjg yag o paxdgiog .Aovxag, aig slg xr { v MlXijxov xovg -Eqpsalwv 
fisxeni^iipaxo ngsofiviigovg o fieiog arroaxoXog, Xsysi xal xd ngbq 
avxovg slgrj/^iiva' ngoae/sxs yag cprjGiv lavxolg xal navxl Tioifivioj, 
iv d) vftag s&sxo xo Tivsvfxa xo ayiov smaxonovg, noi/ualvsiv xi)v 
ixxXrjatav xov Xgiaxov' xal xovg avxovg xal ngiafivxigovg xal 
iniaxonovg wvouaaev. Ovxm xal iv xjj ngog xov [tuxdgiov Tlxov 
ijxicrxoXfj' 8ia xovio xaxiXinov as iv Kgrjxt}, iva xaxaax/jayg xaxd 
noXiv Tigsafivxegovg, dig iya o~oi duxa$d(Ai]V. Kal unbv bnoiovg 



EQUALITY OP BISHOPS AND PRESBYTERS. 223 

2 : 55 ; where he says, that " those who, in the beginning of 
the epistle, are called bishops, evidently belonged to the 
grade of the presbytery." The passage is given entire in 
the margin. 146 Again, 1 Tim. 3: 1, he takes occasion to 
say, that the apostle " calls the presbyter a bishop, as we 
have had occasion to show in our commentary on the epistle 
to the Philippians." 147 

The following commentary of the Greek scholiast, of a 
later date, shows that these views were still retained in the 
Eastern church. " Inasmuch as the custom of the New 
Testament especially, of calling bishops presbyters, and pres- 
byters bishops, seems to be silently neglected by the many, 
it may be shown from Acts 20 : 17; and from the epistle to 
Titus ; and again, from that to the Philippians ; and yet 
again, from the first epistle to Timothy. From the Acts the 
argument is as follows : — ' From Miletus, Paul sent to Ephe- 
sus, and called the presbyters of the church.' He called 
them not bishops ; but farther on he says, ' Over which the 
Holy Ghost hath made you bishops to feed the church.' — 

tivai %Qi] xovg xeigoxovovpsvovg inrjyays' dell, ya.Q xov iniaxonov 
uveyxXrjxov sh'UL, a>g Otov olxovopov. Kal ivxav&a de dijXov xov- 
xo TTsnolrjX? xdlg yaq (moxonoig xovg diaxovovg avv£&v$e y xtav 
ngtafivTEQbW ov nocrjcrdpevog pvr^riv' aXXwg xs ovds olov xs rjv 
noXXovg sniaxonovg ftlav noXiv noipaivsiV (ag sivai dijXov oxi> 
rovg psv TrqsafivisQOvg imaxonovg wvopaas. — Theodoret, Ep. ad 
Phil. p. 445 seq. Vol. III. ed. Halens. 

146 JloXXa xnl xomov (Epaphroditus) xv.xoQ&ai[iaxa dis^ijX&sv 
(Paulus), ovx adtXqpov fiovov, aXXa xal ovvsqybv xul avcnQaxKoirjv 
anoxulscrag. AnooxoXov 8s aviov xixXrjxsv avxaiv atg xi]v eTiifis- 
Xsiav aviuiv efxnsTTiaxsvfisvov' <x>g sivav dtjXov ore vtto xovxov ixs- 
Xovv ol sv tw 7tqooi{iIo) xXri&svxsg tnlaxorxoi, xov nqsofivxsQlov 
drjXovoxi xi)v xd\iv nXr\oovviig. — Ibid. Ep. ad Tim., p. 459, Vol. 
HI. 

147 Enlaxonov 8s evxav&a xov notofivxtoov Xeyet,, a>g xrjv nqbg 
4>iXLn7ir t alovg ijiioxoXi}v sq^vivovxsg U7is8d*aptv. — Ibid. p. 652. 



224 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

From the epistle to Titus, ' Having established presbyters 
throughout the churches as I commanded you.' — From the 
epistles to the Philippians, ' To those that are in Philippi 
with the bishop and deacons.' From the epistle to Timothy 
the same may be inferred by analogy, when he says, ' If 
any man desire the office of a bishop he desireth a good 
work ;' 'A bishop must be blameless,' etc." 148 

This scholiast has but hinted at the argument from these 
passages, to which he refers, but he has said enough to show 
that the doctrine of the ministerial parity of bishops and 
presbyters was still maintained during the middle ages, in 
the Eastern church, and justly defended on the authority of 
the Scriptures. 

Elias, archbishop of Crete, A. D. 787, asserts the identity 
of bishops and presbyters ; and, in commenting upon Gre- 
gory Nazianzen, remarks, that this bishop, in the fifth cen- 
tury, was accustomed to denominate presbyters, bishops, an- 
tistites, making no distinction between them ; — a circum- 

148 ^JEnsidi} Xav&uvEi xovg noXXovg i] crvvij&sia, fxaXioxa xi)g 
xaiv)\g 8ia&t]xr\q, xovg in loxonovg nQEofivxsQovg ovofAa'Qovoa xal 

TOVg TCQttjfjVTSQOVg ETllCniOTTOVg, <jr}[lEl(x)XE0V XOVXOV EVXEV&EV xal ex 

zrjg nqog Tlxov ini(TXoXt]g, sxi 8s xal ttoo? (InXmnrjalovg xal ix 
xr\q nqog Tiixo&sov Tigaizrjg. Ex fisv ovv xwv Ilga^Ewv evxev&ev 
soil TiEiod^vai ntyl xovxov, yeyqanxai yag ovxwg' Ex ds x^g 
Mih'jTov nifiipag slg "Ecptaov y-EXExaXioazo xovg TtQEvfivxiqovg x?]g 
ixxXrjaiag. Kul ovx sl'grjxs rovg Emoxonovg, riia inicpEQEi' ev w 
ifjiuq to Tcvsifia xo uyiov e&exo inioxonovg, noi\xalvEiv xr t v ixxXr\- 
olav. J JEx 8s xr t g nqog Tlxov innjToXijg' Karaaxr^reig xaxa no- 
Xiv nQEofivxioovg, cog iyco aoL dura$d(xEv. Ex di xtjg nqog <IhXm- 
nrjcriovg' Totg ovaiv iv (IhXlnnoig ovvEnitrxonoig xal diaxcvoig. 
Oipai (5g, on ex Tj\g nqoxeqag nQog TijaoOevov avaXoyiaa^xEvog 
xovxo ixXafitlv eX rig ydg, cpr/cri, xr t g imaxojiijg ogsyExai, xaXou 
i'gyov ini^VfiEi' 8el ovv xbv inlvxonov avEnhXrpixov Eivai. — Cited 
by Rothe from Salmasius Episcop. et Presb., p. 13. 






EQUALITY OF BISHOPS AND PRESBYTERS. 225 

stance which this scholiast has noticed in many passages 
from Gregory. 149 

It is truly remarkable how long, and how distinctly, these 
views of the original identity of bishops and presbyters were 
retained in the church. Isidorus Hispalensis, bishop of 
Seville in Spain, in the seventh century, and one of the most 
learned men of that age, copies with approbation the author- 
ity of Jerome given above, as an expression of his own sen- 
timents. He may accordingly be regarded as expressing the 
sentiments of the Western church at this time. 

The views of the church at Alexandria, in the tenth cen- 
tury, have already been expressed in the extract from Euty- 
chius given above. 

Bernaldus Constantiensis, about A. D. 1088, a learned 
monk, and a zealous defender of Gregory VII, after citing 
Jerome, continues : " Inasmuch, therefore, as bishops and 
presbyters were anciently the same, without doubt they had 
the same power to loose and to bind, and to do other acts 
which are now the special prerogatives of the bishop. But 
after the presbyters began to be restricted by Episcopal pre- 
eminence, what was formerly lawful for them became un- 
lawful. Ecclesiastical authority having delegated such pre- 
rogatives to the prelates alone." 150 

Even pope Urban II. 1091, says, — "We regard deacons 
and presbyters as belonging to the sacred order, since these 
are the only orders which the primitive church is said to have 
had. For these only have we apostolical authority." 151 

149 Greg. Naz., Vol. II. p. 830. Ed. Colon. 1590. Also Ed. Basil. 
1571, pp. 262, 264. 

150 Quum igitur presbyteri et episcopi antiquitus, idem fuisse legan- 
tur etiam eandem ligandi atque solvendi potestatem, et alia nunc 
episcopis specialia, habuisse non dubitantur. Postquam autem pres- 
byteri ab episcopali excellentia cohibiti sunt, coepit eis non licere 
quod licuit, videlicet quod ecclesiastica auctoritas solis pontificibus ex- 
equendum delegavit. — De Presbyterorum officio tract, in monumento- 
rutn res Allemannorum illustrant. S. Bias, 1792, 4to. Vol. II. 384 seq. 

151 Sacros autem ordines ducimus diaconatum et presbyteratum. 



226 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

Gratian again, a benedictine, eminent for his learning and 
talents, a century later, adopts all the passages cited above 
from Jerome, ad Tit. I. 152 

Nicholas Tudeschus, archbishop of Panorma, about A. D. 
1423, says : — " Formerly presbyters governed the church in 
common, and ordained the clergy." 153 

It is perhaps still more remarkable that even the papal ca- 
nonist, Jo. Paul Launcelot, A. D. 1570, introduces the pas- 
sage from Jerome without any attempt to refute it. 154 

Thus all through the middle ages, during the proudest as- 
cendency of prelatical power, the doctrine of the original 
equality of bishops and presbyters was acknowledged in the 
Roman Catholic church, as is attested by a succession of the 
most learned of her clergy. 

Gieseler remarks, " That the distinction between the di- 
vine and the ecclesiastical appointment, institittio, was of 
less importance in the middle ages than in the modern catho- 
lic church, and this view of the original identity of bishops 
and presbyters, was of no practical importance. It was not 
till after the Reformation that it was attacked. Michael de 
Medina, about A. D. 1570, does not hesitate to assert that 
those fathers were essentially heretics ; but adds, that out of 
respect for these fathers, this heresy in them is not to be con- 
demned. Bellarmine declares this a ' very inconsiderate sen- 
timent.' Thenceforth all catholics, as well as English Epis- 
copalians, maintain an original difference between bishop and 
presbyter." 155 

Hos siquidem solos primitiva legitur ecclesia habuisse ; super his so- 
lum preceptum habemus apostoli. — Cone. Bencvent, an. 1090. can. 1. 

152 (Dist. XCV. c. 5.) Epist. ad Evangel. (Dist. XCIII. c. 24.) and 
Isidori His. (Dist. XXI. c. 1). 

153 Super prima parte Primi, cap. 5. ed. Lugdun, 1543, fol. 1126. 
Olim presbyteri in commune regebant ecclesiam et ordinabant sacer- 
dotes. 

154 Institutt. juris Canon. Lib. 1. Tit. 21. § 3. 

155 Comp. especially Pctavii de ecclesiastica hierarchia Lib. 5, and 



EQUALITY OF BISHOPS AND PRESBYTERS. 227 

In view of the whole course of the argument, then, have 
we not good and sufficient reasons, for regarding the Episco- 
pal claim of an original distinction between bishops and pres- 
byters, as a groundless assumption? The existence of such 
a distinction has been denied by prelates, bishops, and learn- 
ed controversialists, and commentators, both in the Eastern, 
and Western churches, of every age down to the sixteenth 
century. It was unknown to those early fathers, who lived 
nearest to the apostolical age, and some of whom were the im- 
mediate successors of the apostles. It was wholly unauthorized 
by the apostles themselves. On the contrary, they assign to 
bishops and presbyters the same specific duties. They re- 
quire in both the same qualifications. They address them 
by the same names and titles interchangeably and indiscrimi- 
nately. Are not bishops and presbyters, then, one and the 
same? — the same in office, in honor, and in power; possess- 
ing equally all the prerogatives, rights, and privileges of those 
pastors and teachers, to whom the apostles, at their decease, 
resigned the churches, for the perfecting of the saints, 
for the work of the ministry, for the edifying of the body of 
Christ? Or must we believe that the presbyter after all is a 
mere subaltern of the bishop; ordained of God to perform 
only the humbler offices of the ministry, and to supply the 
bishop's lack of service ? Must we believe moreover, that 

dissertatt. theologies. Lib. 1, in his theolog. dogmat. Torn. 4. p. 164. 
On the other side, JVahnis Messalini, (Claud. Salmasii) diss, de epis- 
copis et presbyteris. Lugd. Bat. 1641, 8vo. Dav. Blondelli apologia 
prosententia Hieronymi de episcopis et presbyteris. Amstelod. 1616, 
4to. Against these FJenr. Hammondus dissertatt. IV. quibus episco- 
patus jura ex sacra scripturaet prima antiquitate adstruuntur. Lond. 
1651. The controversy was long continued. On the side of the Epis- 
copalians, Jo. Pearson., Gu.it. Beveridge, Henr Dodtoelf, Jos. Bing- 
ham, Jac. Usserius. On that of the Presbyterians, Jo. DaHacas, Camp. 
Vitringa ; also the Lutherans, Joach. HUdcbrand, Just. Hcnn. Boe/i- 
wer, Jo. Franc. Buddeus, Christ. Math. Pfaff, etc. Comp. Jo, Phil. 
Gabler de episcopis primae ecclesiae Christ, eorumque origine diss. 
Jenae, 1803, 4to. 



228 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

the bishop, this honored and most important dignitary of 
the church, in whom all clerical grace centres, and to 
whose hands alone has been intrusted all that authority 
and power, the proper transmission of which is essential to 
the perpetuity of the ministry and the just administration of 
the ordinances, — that this important functionary is but a 
nameless nondescript, known by no title, represented by no 
person, or class of persons in the apostolical churches, and 
having no distinct, specific duties prescribed in the New Tes- 
tament? All this may be asserted and re-affirmed, as a thou- 
sand times it has virtually been ; but it can never be proved. 
It must be received, if received at all, with blind credulity; 
not on reasonable evidence. Verily this vaunting of high 
church Episcopacy is an insult to reason; — a quiet compla- 
cent assumption, which makes " implicit faith the highest 
demonstration." If any assertor of these absurd pretensions 
finds himself disquieted, at any time, by the renewed remon- 
strances of Scripture, truth and reason, in order to repel these 
impertinent intruders and restore the equilibrium of his mind, 
he has only to " shake his head and tell them how superior 
after all is faith to logic!" 

The foregoing chapters give us an outline of that ecclesi- 
astical organization which the churches received from the 
hands of the apostles, and which was continued in the primi- 
tive church for some time after the apostolic age. The gov- 
ernment is altogether popular. The sovereign authority is 
vested in the people. From them all the laws originate ; 
through them they are administered. The government gua- 
rantees to all its members the enjoyment of equal rights and 
privileges, secures to them the right of private judgment, ad- 
mits of their intervention in all public affairs. It extends to 
all the right of suffrage. Each community is an independent 
sovereignty, whose members are subject to no foreign eccle- 
siastical jurisdiction. Their confessions, formularies and 



EQUALITY OF BISHOPS AND TRESBYTERS. 229 

terms of communion are formed according to their own inter- 
pretation of the laws of God ; and if the deportment of any 
one is subject to impeachment, the case is decided by the im- 
partial verdict of his brethren. Their officers are few ; and 
their ministers, equal in rank and power, are the servants, not 
the lords of the people. The entire polity of the apostolical! 
and primitive churches was framed on the principles, not of 
a monarchical hierarchy, but of a popular and elective gov- 
ernment. In a word, it was a republican government admin- 
istered with republican simplicity. 

This exhibition of the original organization of the Chris- 
tian church suggests a variety of reflections, some of which 
we must be permitted, before closing this view of the apos- 
tolical and primitive church, to suggest to the consideration 
of the reader. 



REMARKS. 

1. The primitive church was organized as a purely reli- 
gious society. 

It had for its object the promotion of the great interests of 
morality and religion. It interfered not with the secular or pri- 
vate pursuits of its members, except so far as they related to the 
great end for which the church was formed, — the promotion 
of pure and undented religion. Whenever the Christian 
church has let itself down to mingle or interfere with the se- 
cular pursuits of men, the only result has been her own dis- 
grace, and the dishonor of the great cause which she was set 
to defend. 

2. It employed only moral means for the accomplishment 
of religious ends. 

The apostles sought, by kind and tender entreaty, to re- 
claim the wandering. They taught the church to do the 
same ; and to separate the unworthy from their communion. 
20 



230 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

But they gave no countenance to the exercise of arbitrary 
authority over the conduct or the consciences of men. They 
neither allowed themselves, nor the church, to exercise any 
other authority than that of the word of God and of Christ, 
enforced by instruction, by counsel and by admonition. They 
had ever before them the beautiful idea of a religious frater- 
nity, — its members united in the bonds of faith and mutual af- 
fection, and striving together in purity and love for the pro- 
motion of godliness. 

3. The church was at first free from all entanglement with 

the state. 

It had no affinity with the existing forms of state government, 
and no connection with them. It vested the church power 
in the only appropriate source of all social power, — in the 
'people. It is only in this voluntary system, in which neither 
state-power nor church-power can interfere with the religious 
convictions of men, that the church of Christ finds a gua- 
ranty for the preservation of its purity and the exercise of its 
legitimate influence. 

But the church soon began to be assimilated to the form 
of the existing civil governments, and in the end a " hie- 
rarchy of bishops, metropolitans, and patriarchs arose, corres- 
ponding to the graduated rank of the civil administration. 
Ere-long the Roman bishop assumed pre-eminence above all 
others." 157 United with the civil authority in its interests, 
assimilated to that power in its form of government, and secu- 
larized in its spirit, the church, under Constantine and his 
successors, put off its high and sacred character, and became 
a part of the machinery of state government. It first truc- 
kled to the low arts of state policy, and afterwards, with insatia- 
ble ambition, assumed the supreme control of all power, human 
and divine. 

4. It was another advantage of the system of the primitive 

157 Ranke's Hist, of the Popes, Eng. Trans., Vol. I. p. 29. 



EQUALITY OF BISHOPS AND PRESBYTERS, 231 

church, that it was fitted to any form of civil government, 
and to any state of society. 

Voluntary and simple in their organization, entirely re- 
moved from all connection with the civil government, with 
no confederate relations among themselves, and seeking only 
by the pure precepts of religion to persuade men in every 
condition to lead quiet and holy lives, these Christian socie- 
ties were adapted to any state of society and any form of 
government. This primitive Christianity commended itself, 
with equal facility, to the rich and the poor, the learned and 
the unlearned, the high and the low ; whether it addressed 
itself to the soldier, the fisherman or the peasant, it equally 
suited their condition. It gathered into its communion con- 
verts from every form of government, of every species of 
superstition, and of every condition in life, and by its whole- 
some truths and simple rites trained them up for eternal life. 
Stern and uncompromising in its purity and simplicity, it 
stood aloof from all other forms, both of government and of 
religion. It neither sought favor from the prejudice of the 
Gentile, nor the bigotry of the Jew. It yielded compliance 
neither to the despotism of Rome, nor to the democracy of 
Greece, while it could live and flourish under either govern- 
ment and in any state of society. Can the same be said 
with equal propriety of Episcopacy 1 Are its complicated 
forms and ceremonials, its robes and vestments, its rituals, 
and all its solemn pomp, equally adapted to every state of 
religious feeling, or suited alike to refined society, and to 
rude and rustic life 1 Are all its complicated forms of gov- 
ernment, its grades of office, its diocesan and metropolitan 
confederacies, and its monarchical powers, equally conge- 
nial with every kind of civil government? 

5. It subjected the clergy to salutary restraints by bring- 
ing them, in their official character, under the watch of the 
church. 

The apostles, as we have already seen, recognized their 



232 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

own accountability to the church. This continued after- 
wards to be an established principle in the primitive church. 
The consciousness that their whole life was open to the judi- 
cial inspection of those to whom they ministered, and by 
whom they were most intimately known, could not fail to 
create in the clergy a salutary circumspection, the restraints 
of which, an independent ministry under another system can 
never feel. 

6. It served to guard them also against the workings of 
an unholy ambition, a thirst for office, and the love of power. 

This thought is necessarily implied in the preceding, but it 
is of such importance that it deserves a distinct consideration. 
Those disgraceful contests for preferment, the recital of 
which crowds the page of history, belong to a later age and 
a different ecclesiastical polity. 

7. It tended also to guard the clergy against a mercenary 
spirit. 

The vast wealth of a church-establishment, and the prince- 
ly revenues of its incumbents, offer an incentive to this sor- 
did passion which Paul in his poverty could never have felt, 
and which none can ever feel, who are contented to receive 
only a humble competence, as a voluntary offering at the 
hands of those for whom they labor. 

8. The system was well suited to guard the church from 
the evils of a sectarian spirit. 

In the church of Christ were Jews, jealous for the law of 
their fathers. There were also Greeks, who, independent of 
the Mosaic economy, had received the gospel and become 
Christians, without being Jews in spirit. Had now the 
church assumed the form of a national establishment, with 
its prescribed articles of faith, its ritual, etc., it is difficult to 
conceive bow the opposing views of these different parties 
could have been harmonized. The older apostles, with the 
Jews, might have maintained with greater firmness their Jew- 
ish prejudice as they observed the pure direction of Chris- 



EQUALITY OF BISHOPS AND PRESBYTERS. 233 

tianity in Paul and his Gentile converts, who again might 
have been more determined in their opposition to a Judaiz- 
ing spirit. So that these germinating differences might have 
ended in an irreconcilable opposition. As it was, this dis- 
turbing influence was strongly manifested in all the churches, 
so that it required all the wisdom and influence of the apos- 
tles to unite their Christian converts in an organization so 
simple as that which they did establish. 

9. It left the apostles and pastors free to pursue their great 
work, without let or hindrance from ecclesiastical authority 
or partizan zeal. 

It allowed free scope for the fervid zeal of the early pro- 
mulgators of the gospel of Christ, and permitted them to 
range at large in their missionary tours for the conversion of 
men, unrestrained by the rules of ecclesiastical authority or 
canonical laws. An explanation, given and received in the 
spirit of mutual confidence, reconciled the brethren whose 
prejudice was excited by the preaching of Peter to the Gen- 
tiles. The unhappy division between Paul and Barnabas 
ended in the furtherance of the gospel, both being at liberty, 
notwithstanding this sinful infirmity, to prosecute their la- 
bors for the salvation of men without being arrested by the 
ban of a hierarchy, or trammelled by ecclesiastical jealousy, 
lest the souls whom one or the other should win to Christ, 
might chance not to be canonically converted. 

10. The order of the primitive church was calculated to 
preserve peace and harmony among the clergy. 

One in rank and power, and holding the tenure of their 
office at the will of their people, they had few temptations, 
comparatively, to engage in strife one with another for pre- 
ferment ; or to repine at the advancement of one of their 
number, who by his superior qualifications was promoted to 
some commanding post of usefulness above them. 

We know indeed that Jerome assigns the origin of Epis- 
copacy to the ambitious contentions of the clergy in the 
20* 



234 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

primitive church ; as though this were an expedient to heal 
their divisions. Now, if this be true, we have only to say, 
that the remedy proved to be infinitely worse than the evil 
which it would cure. All the ecclesiastical historians of an- 
tiquity most fully and strongly attest the fact, that after the 
rise of diocesan Episcopacy, and the establishment of the 
various grades of the hierarchy, the spirit of faction rose 
high among the clergy. Insatiable ambition possessed all 
orders among the priesthood, raging like a pestilence through 
their several ranks. The age of Constantine and his suc- 
cessors, within which the system of prelacy was matured, 
was pre-eminently the age of clerical ambition. 

*'* In the age we speak of, which seems too justly styled 
ambitionis saeculum, the age of ambition, — though those, 
whose designs agree with the humor of it, have esteemed 
it most imitable, — scarce any in the church could keep their 
own, that had any there greater than themselves; some 
bishops, and not only the presbyters found it so, the great 
still encroaching upon those, whose lower condition made 
them obnoxious to the ambition and usurpation of the more 
potent. 

"In that unhappy time, what struggling was there in 
bishops of all sorts for more greatness and larger power ! 
What tugging at councils and court for these purposes !" 158 

Socrates, the ecclesiastical historian, A. D. 439, alleges 
that he has intermingled the history of the wars of those 
times, as a relief to the reader, that he may not be continu- 
ally detained with the ambitious contentions, qnlovucia, of 
the bishops, and their plots and counter-plots against each 
other. 159 But more of this hereafter. 

11. It was also happily suited to ensure to the people a 
useful and efficient ministry. 

Select a few from among their ministerial brethren, exalt 

158 Clarkson's Primitive Episcopacy, pp. 142, 143. 

159 Introduction to Lib. 5. 



EQUALITY OF BISHOPS AND PRESBYTERS. 235 

them to the high places of Episcopal power, encircle them 
with the mitre, the robe, and all the " paraphernalia of pon- 
tifical dignity," enthrone them securely in authority, settle 
them quietly in their palaces to enjoy the ample benefices of 
an irresponsible office ; and, however gratifying may be the 
favors which you have bestowed, you have done little to ad- 
vance their ministerial usefulness. 

Besides, the days of a bishop's activity and usefulness 
soon pass away, but his office still remains. Though passed 
into " the sere and yellow leaf of age," he bears his blush- 
ing honors still upon him. In the circumstances of the case, 
indeed, he can scarcely be expected to resign his office; 
neither can he, it should seem, even if he would; for " when 
once made bishop, and when he has thus received the indeli- 
ble, invisible mark of Episcopal grace, he is absolutely shut 
up to the necessity of continuing in office, however unwor- 
thy or unfit he may prove or find himself to be." 160 

What an incumbrance to the ministrations of the truth as 
it is in Jesus, again, are the forms, and rites, and observan- 
ces of the Episcopal service. Here are thirty-six festivals, 
and one hundred fasts, as specified in the prayer book, an- 
nually claiming the attention of the preacher. Then there 
is the " holy catholic church ;" the mysteries of the sacra- 
ments, baptismal regeneration, and the awful presence in the 

160 Constit. and Canons of Prot. Epis. Church, pp. 301, 303. " So 
far," says Dr. Hawks, " as our research has extended, this law is 
without a precedent in the history of the Christian church. We 
may be mistaken, but we believe that ours is the first church in 
Christendom, that ever legislated for the express purpose of prevent- 
ing Episcopal resignations ; for this canon prescribes so many re- 
strictions, that the obstacles render it almost impossible for a bishop 
to lay down his jurisdiction. The matter is one which the practice 
of the church has heretofore left to be settled between God and the 
conscience of the bishops ; and it may well be questioned, whether it 
be not best in all cases, there to leave it." — Cited from Smyth's Ecch 
Republicanism, p. 167. 



236 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

elements of the eucharist ; the holy order of bishops ; " the 
ascending orders of the hierarchy j" " the most excellent 
liturgy ;" the validity of Episcopal ordination, " covenant 
mercies," etc. etc., all pressing their claims on the attention 
of the Episcopal minister, and demanding a place in the min- 
istrations of the pulpit. 

Add to these the sublimer doctrines of prelacy. Let him 
begin to discourse about apostolic succession, divine right, 
postures, attitudes, " wax candles, altar-cloths, chaplets, 
crosses, crucifixes, and mummery of all kinds," — and it is 
not difficult to conjecture what place the great doctrine of 
Christ and him crucified must hold in his teachings, or what 
efficacy his ministry will have in winning souls to Christ by 
the preaching of the truth as it is in Jesus. So it was with 
the mediaeval church. " No one can read the writings of 
the fathers, without feeling that they gradually became more 
intent on the circumstantials of religion than on the essence 
of it ; more solicitous about the modes in which religious du- 
ties should be performed, than about the spirit of them. It 
is all over with religion when this is the case." 

But how different from all this was the ministry of Christ 
and of the apostles. Armed with the panoply of heaven, — 
the word of God alone, the sword of the spirit, — the first 
preachers of the Christian religion went forth, conquering 
and to conquer. By the simple instrumentality of the word, 
mighty through God to the pulling down of strong holds, they 
quickly spread the triumphs of the cross through every land 
and carried up their conquests to the very throne of the Cae- 
sars. Be ours a religion that creates and enjoys such a min- 
istry. 

12. This primitive system served to make an efficient 
laity. 

Instead of excluding them from the concerns of the 
church, like some other forms of church government, and 
requiring of them chiefly to attend to their forms of wor- 



EQUALITY OF BISHOPS AND PRESBYTERS. 237 

ship and pay their taxes, this primitive system of ecclesiasti- 
cal polity devolved upon the members of the church the 
duties of discipline, and the care of the church. It trained 
them to live and to care for the interests of religion. It 
quickened their graces, by calling them into habitual exer- 
cise. It gave an efficient practical character to their reli- 
gion. Look at those churches in England and America 
which bear the closest resemblance to this primitive organi- 
zation. Observe their members in the private walks of life. 
Look at their efficiency in missionary operations, their noble 
charities, and their generous labors in every department of 
Christian benevolence. They are not merely devout wor- 
shippers within the church, and decent moralists without, 
but everywhere eminently intelligent, efficient and liberal. 
They serve God as well as worship him. Not content mere- 
ly to cultivate the private virtues of the Christian, the laity 
gain a habit of counselling and acting for the church and 
for their fellow-men, which gives to their religion an enter- 
prising, practical, business character. An absolute govern- 
ment, on the other hand, whether civil or religious, which 
separates the people from participation in its administration, 
forms in them the habit of living and caring only for them- 
selves ; and the result is a retiring, negative character, a ser- 
vile, selfish spirit. The impress of a despotic government 
upon the character of a people is as clear as the light of the 
sun in the heavens ; and, so long as like causes produce sim- 
ilar effects, the results of a spiritual despotism may be seen 
in an inactive, inefficient laity. Noble examples to the con- 
trary there may be; just as there may be found individuals 
of generous impulses and lofty aspirations, in those countries 
whose government is most despotic, who burst away from the 
thraldom of their condition, and rise superior to the enerva- 
ting, depressing influences, which act disastrously upon men 
of ordinary minds. But the general character of any peo- 



238 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

pie is moulded and formed by the government, civil and re- 
ligious, under which they live. 

Of drones, monks, sinecurists, and cloistered Christians 
even, content in seclusion to cultivate merely the retired vir- 
tues of private life, careless of a world lying in wickedness, 
so they may themselves but safely be raised to heaven at last 
— of all such the church has had enough. But the true 
church of Christ demands men who shall not forget to do 
good, and to communicate to all men as they may have op- 
portunity. 161 Her present exigencies call for working-men, 
in the best sense of the phrase ; men who shall live, not unto 
themselves, but for their Lord and Master, and for the souls 
which he has redeemed by his own blood. And that is the 
best religious system, which trains, in the happiest manner 
and in greatest numbers, such working-men for the church 
of Christ. 

161 The superior liberality and enterprise of those religious denomi- 
nations now under consideration, is noticed by a correspondent in a 
late number of the Episcopal Recorder. 

" O, that we had the zeal of some other denominations of Chris- 
tians, against whom we too often boast ourselves, but whose liberality 
puts our penuriousness to open shame. It is but a few days since a 
single firm in this city, consisting of three members, gave $15,000 to 
sustain the Presbyterian Theological Seminary of New York, yet 
Bishop Mcllvaine, wanting little more than this same sum, to relieve 
one of the noblest of the institutions of our church, has to beg from 
city to city, from rich to poor, and is at this moment in anxious sus- 
pense whether his mission may not fail, because men are lovers of 
their own selves, instead of being constrained by the love of Christ 
to give freely of what they have so freely received. It may be stated 
as a humiliating fact, showing the low estate of our church, that no 
sum above $250 has yet been received from any one in aid of Kenyon 
College, though numbers reside in this city who could cancel the 
debt themselves, and never feel the loss of so trifling a sum. When 
shall we see men awakening to a sense of their responsibility and 
their stewardship to God ? When shall we hear them exclaim, with 
Zaccheus, ' Lord, the half of my goods I give to the poor ?' " — Epis. 
Rec. Oct. 21, 1843. 



"' < T*^ 



EQUALITY OF BISHOPS AND PRESBYTERS. 239 

" When every good Christian, thoroughly acquainted with 
all those glorious privileges of sanctification and adoption, 
which render him more sacred than any dedicated altar or 
element, shall be restored to his right in the church, and not 
excluded from such place of spiritual government as his 
Christian abilities and his approved good life in the eye and 
testimony of the church shall prefer him to, this and nothing 
sooner will open his eyes to a wise and true valuation of him- 
self, which is so requisite and high a point of Christianity, 
and will stir him up to walk worthy the honorable and grave 
employment wherewith God and the church hath dignified 
him, not fearing lest he should meet with some outward holy 
thing in religion which his lay touch or presence might pro- 
fane, but lest something unholy from within his own heart 
should dishonor and profane in himself that priestly unction 
and clergy-right whereto Christ hath entitled him. Then 
would the congregation of the Lord soon recover the true 
likeness and visage of what she is indeed, a holy generation, 
a royal priesthood, a saintly communion, the household and 
city of God. And this I hold to be another considerable 
reason why the functions of church government ought to be 
free and open to any Christian man, though never so laic, if 
his capacity, his faith, and prudent demeanor commend him. 
And this the apostles warrant us to do." 162 

13. Such a system of religion as that which we have been 
contemplating, harmonizes with and fosters our free insti- 
tutions. 

In the same state, the forms of civil and ecclesiastical gov- 
ernment will be in harmony with each other. There is a 
mutual relation and adaptation between our free, republican 
government and a popular ecclesiastical organization like 
that of the apostolical and primitive church. Such a system 
harmonizes with our partialities and prejudices ; it coincides 
with our national usages ; it is congenial with all our civil in- 

162 Milton's Prose Works, Vol. I. p. 167. 



2 40 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

stitutions. This is a consideration of great importance. It 
is enough of itself to outweigh, a thousand-fold, all that has ever 
been urged in favor of prelacy. Indeed, the spiritual despot- 
ism of that system, its absolute monarchical powers, consti- 
tute one strong objection to it. It is the religion of despots 
and tyrants. Such in its papal form it has always been ; and 
such, we cannot doubt, is still one inherent characteristic of 
high, exclusive Episcopacy, however it may be modified by 
circumstances. The church of England, from the time of 
its establishment, says Macaulay, " continued to be, for more 
than one hundred and fifty years, the servile handmaid of 
monarchy, the steady enemy of public liberty." 163 James, 
the tyrant of that age, uniformly silenced every plea in behalf 
of the Puritans, with the significant exclamation, " No bishop, 
no king." So indispensable is the hierarchy to a monarchy. 
But in a free republic it is a monstrous anomaly. 

On the other hand, be it remembered, " the New Testa- 
ment is emphatically a republican book. It sanctions no 
privileged orders ; it gives no exclusive rights. All, who im- 
bibe its spirit and obey its precepts, are recognized as equals ; 
children of the same Father; brethren and sisters in Christ, 
and heirs to a common inheritance. In the spirit of these 
kind and endearing relations, the first Christians formed them- 
selves into little republican. communities, acknowledging no 
head but Jesus Christ, and regulating all their concerns by 
mutual consultation and a popular vote of the brotherhood. 
In these distinct and independent societies was realized for 
the first time in this world the perfect idea of civil and reli- 
gious liberty. 

" The Puritans imbibed the same spirit, and derived their 
principles from the same pure source of light, of holiness and 
freedom. They modeled their churches after the primitive 
form, and founded them on the basis of entire independence 
and equality of rights. Twice in their native land had they 

163 Miscellanies, Boston ed. 1. p. 249. 



EQUALITY OF BISHOPS AND PRESBYTERS. 241 

saved the British constitution from being crushed by the usur- 
pations of the Stuarts ; and Hume, who was never backward 
to reproach both their character and their principles, is com- 
pelled to acknowledge that what of liberty breathes in that 
constitution is to be ascribed to the influence of the Puri-r 
tans. 164 These were the men who settled New-England. 
They came here bearing in their bosoms the sacred love of 
liberty and religion; and ere they left the little bark that had: 
borne them across the ocean, they formed themselves ' into a 
civil body politic,' having for its basis this fundamental prin- 
ciple, that they should be ruled by the majority. Here i» 
brought out the grand idea of a free, elective government. 
Here is the germ of that tree of liberty which now rears its lofty 
top to the heavens, spreading its branches over the length and 
breadth of our land, and under whose shade seventeen mil- 
lions of freemen are reposing. The spirit of all our free, civil,, 
and religious institutions was in the breasts of our pilgrim 
fathers. 

" How striking is the resemblance between the churches; 
planted by the apostles, and those established in this land by 
our venerated fathers 1 Well may we believe them, when 
they say, that the primitive, apostolic churches were the only 
pattern they had in their eye in organizing the churches of 
New-England. They certainly well understood their pattern 
and were singularly happy in imitating it." 165 

" Many more graceful and more- winning forms of human 

164 " So absolute, indeed, was the authority of the crown, that the 
precious spark of liberty had been kindled and was preserved by the 
Puritans ; and it was to this sect, whose principles appear so frivolous,, 
and habits so ridiculous, that the English owe the whole freedom of 
their constitution." Again, u It was only during the next generation, 
that the noble principles of liberty took root, and spreading themselves 
under the shelter of Puritanical absurdities, became fashionable among- 
the people. — Hume's Eng. Vol. V. pp. 183, 469. 

165 Hawes's Tribute to the memory of the Pilgrims, pp. 61 — 63, 
83, 84. 

21 



242 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

nature there have been, and are, and shall be; many men, 
many races there are, and have been, and shall be, of more 
genial dispositions, more tasteful accomplishments, a quicker 
eye for the beautiful of art and nature, less disagreeably ab- 
sorbed, less gloomily careful and troubled about the mighty 
interests of the spiritual being, or of the commonwealth. . . . 
But where, in the long series of ages that furnish the matter 
of history, was there ever one, — where one, better fitted by the 
possession of the highest traits of man, to do the noblest work, 
of man; better fitted to consummate and establish the Re- 
formation, — to save the English constitution, at its last gasp, 
from the fate of other European constitutions, and prepare, 
on the granite and iced mountain summits of the new world, 
a still better rest for a still better liberty ?" 166 

In conclusion, we would acknowledge, with devout grati- 
tude to God, the rich inheritance which we have received 
from our puritan forefathers, in the religious institutions 
which they have transmitted to us. 

They have given us a religion, more nearly allied, both in 
spirit and in form, to scriptural Christianity, than any other 
that has ever risen upon the world, — a religion, more abun- 
dant in blessings, and more highly to be prized than any 
other; a religion, from which the whole American system, 
with all its institutions, social, civil and religious, has arisen. 
Our pilgrim fathers, while at anchor off our coast, and before 
they set foot upon these shores, after solemn prayer to the 
God of nations, entered mutually into a solemn compact, on 
board the Mayflower, to establish a government here " for 
the glory of God and the advancement of the Christian 
faith." With this intent they landed and entered upon their 
great work, as if conscious of their high destiny, reared up 
by God to establish aud extend those principles of civil and 
religious freedom which they had so nobly defended in their 

166 Speech of Hon. Rufus Choate before N. Eng. Soc. N. York, 
Dec. 25, 1843. 



EQUALITY OF BISHOPS AND PRESBYTERS. 243 

father-land. There they had suffered the loss of all things 
and shed their blood, freely, in their inflexible adherence to 
these principles. Harassed and wearied, but not dismayed, 
by their continual bonds, imprisonments, and persecutions at 
home, and by their exile abroad, they resolved to seek an 
asylum in the wilderness of the new world, where, in peace- 
ful seclusion, they might establish a government ' for the 
glory of God and the advancement of the Christian faith.' 
The Bible was their statute-book ; and their religion, that 
primitive Christianity which God gave to the world through 
the medium of our Lord and his apostles. In fulfilment of 
their design, their first care was to set up the tabernacle of 
the Lord in this wilderness. They erected the church, and 
fast by this the school-house ; then the court-house, the acad- 
emy, the college, while yet they were of one faith and one 
name. No other form of religion was known, in this land of 
the pilgrims, until the great principles of the American system 
were developed, and established here by our puritan forefa- 
thers. 

The truth is, they were no ordinary men. They lived for 
no ordinary purpose. They were men, the most remarkable 
that the world has ever produced. They lived for a nobler 
end, for a higher destiny than any others that have ever lived. 
These are the men to whom New-England owes her religion 
with all the blessings, social, civil, and literary, that follow in 
its train. These are the venerable men whose blood still flows 
in our veins, and into whose inheritance we have entered. 
Peace to their silent shades. Fragrant as the breath of morn- 
ing be their memory. The winds of two centuries have swept 
over their graves. The effacing hand of time has well nigh 
worn away the perishable monuments which may have marked 
the spot where sleeps their honored dust. But they still live. 
They live in the immortal principles which they taught ; — in 
the enduring institutions which they established. They live 
in the remembrance of a grateful posterity ; and they will live 



244 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

on, through all time, in the gratitude of unborn generations, 
who, in long succession, shall rise up and call them blessed. 
And shall we, "who keep the graves, and bear the names, and 
boast the blood" of these men, disown their church, or cast 
out as evil, and revile their religion? No; by the memory 
of these noble men; by their holy lives, their heavenly princi- 
ples, their sacred institutions ; by the sustaining strength 
which they themselves are still giving to our own freedom, 
and to the great cause of civil and religious liberty through- 
out the earth, — let us never give up the religion of our fathers. 
No, never, never ! 

But we have seen of late years several young men, of a cer- 
tain cast of character, annually straying away from the fold of 
their fathers, and coldly exchanging their own religious birth- 
right for a more imposing ritual, encumbered with a mass of 
anti-scriptural ceremonials, and withal, sadly deficient in the 
means of spiritual improvement. And other young aspirants 
there may be, recreant to the faith of their fathers, and eager to 
follow in the footsteps of their apostatizing predecessors. 
Well, be it so. If there be any who find themselves seized 
with a desire to forsake the altar and communion of their 
fathers, and to consign their sainted ancestors, together with 
their kindred according to the flesh, and their brethren in 
Christ, with whom they have often sat at the table of the 
Lord, — the very lambs of the flock it may be, whom they 
themselves have gathered into the fold of Christ, and sought 
gently to lead in the path of life, — if, I say, they can now 
leave all these, with " cool atrocity, " to " uncovenanted 
mercy," — if such be the humor of their mind, be it so ; but 
if they have yet an ear to hear, there is a voice of gentle ad- 
monition to which they do well to give heed. From the 
dying lips of puritan ancestry it calls to them intones of kind 
but earnest remonstrance, "We do earnestly testify that if any 
who are given to change, do rise up to unhinge the well es- 
tablished churches in this land, it will be the duty and inter- 



EQUALITY OF BISHOPS AND PRESBYTERS. 245 

est of the churches to examine whether the men of this tres- 
pass are more prayerful, more zealous, more patient, more 
heavenly, more universally conscientious, and harder students 
and better scholars, and more willing to be informed and ad- 
vised, than those great and good men who left unto the 
churches what they now enjoy. If they be not so, it will be 
wisdom to forbear pulling down, with their own hands, the 
houses of God which were built by their wiser fathers, until 
they have better satisfaction." 159 

159 Rev. John Higginson and Rev. William Hubbard. 



581* 



CHAPTER VII. 



RISE OF EPISCOPACY. 



At what period the republican principle, in the primitive 
church, began to give place to the aristocratic and monarchi- 
cal element, is not distinctly known. It is, however, admit- 
ted by Dean Waddington, " that the spirit of religion and the 
first government of the church was popular ;" and that " the 
Episcopal government was clearly not yet established," at the 
close of the first century, when Clement wrote. Riddle makes 
essentially the same concession ; and with him many other 
Episcopalians. Such, indeed, seems to be the acknowledged 
opinion of that class of this denomination who disclaim the 
-doctrine of the divine right of Episcopacy. 

On the other hand, it is generally conceded that the popu- 
lar form of government in the church, began gradually to 
change into one more despotic, soon after the age of the apos- 
tles. Those changes in the organization of the apostolical 
churches, which finally terminated in the Episcopal system, 
began, in the opinion of some, as early as the first half of the 
second century. Many others, with greater probability, refer 
the commencement of the transition to the second half of the 
same century. Nothing appears in history to define with 
precision the period when the change in question began. It 
was doubtless different in different churches. Resulting 
gradually, and almost imperceptibly, from many causes, it 
was unnoticed at first, or left unrecorded in the scanty re- 
cords of that early period which still remain. 



RISE OF EPISCOPACY. 247 

The Episcopal hierarchy had its origin undoubtedly in 
what may be denominated the parochial system. This term 
denotes the intermediate state of the church, in its transition 
from the primitive, apostolical form, to that of the diocesan 
confederacy. The churches, in the principal towns, gradu- 
ally gained a controlling influence over those which were 
planted in the country around. And the clergy of these cen- 
tral churches came, by degrees, into similar relations to their 
brethren in the country. So that both minister and people 
of the city became, through the operation of various causes, 
the centre of influence and power over the feeble churches 
which gradually sprang up in the neighboring country. The 
church of the metropolis became, in the quaint style of church 
history, the mother-church, to smaller, dependent fraternities 
in the country ; and the clerical head of this church, the prin- 
cipal man among his brethren, the presiding officer of their 
assemblies and councils. This accidental ascendency of the 
central church, and of its clergy, led on to the rapid develop- 
ment of the Episcopal system ; and, finally, ended in the 
overthrow of the popular government of the primitive church. 

This chapter, therefore will be devoted to a consideration 
of the causes which gave, both to the churches and to the 
bishops of the principal cities, that increasing ascendency 
and power, from which we trace the rise of Episcopacy. 

I. Of the ascendency of the churches in the cities over 
those in the country. 

The gospel was first preached in large cities and towns, 
such as Jerusalem, Antioch, Ephesus, and Corinth. Here 
were the earliest churches founded. These churches now 
became central points of effort and of influence for the exten- 
sion of Christianity in the region round about The apostles 
themselves, sometimes made such missionary excursions into 
the neighboring towns and villages, Acts 8: 25. 9: 32. Simi- 
lar efforts were doubtless continued and greatly extended, by 



248 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

the pastors and converts of those central churches. The 
promptings of Christian benevolence naturally directed them 
to such efforts. Clement represents the apostles to have es- 
tablished churches, in this manner, both in the cities and in 
the country. 

The early Christians were often dispersed abroad, also, by 
persecution; and, like the first Christians, Acts 8: 4, " went 
everywhere preaching the word." 

Strangers and visiters in the principal cities, where the 
gospel was preached, also frequently became converts to 
Christ, and returned home to make known his gospel, as they 
might have opportunity and ability in the places where they 
resided. 

Whatever the means may have been, it is an acknowledged 
historical fact, that the Christian religion continued to spread 
with wonderful rapidity during the first century ; and that by 
the close of this period it had pervaded, not only the principal 
cities, but the country also, in many provinces of the Roman 
empire. Pliny, A. D. 103 or 104, in the remote province of 
Bithynia, complains that " this contagious superstition was 
not confined to the cities only, but had spread its infection 
through the country villages." 1 These new Christian con- 
verts in the surrounding country, while yet few and feeble, 
became of course members of the neighboring church. The 
parent-church became a great parish spreading out over an 
indefinite extent of country, and having several subordinate 
branches in connection with it, and more or less dependent 
upon it, over which it exerted a sustaining and controlling 
influence. 

For a time, Dr. Campbell supposes that these converts in 
the villages received pastoral instruction, and the elements 
of the eucharist, from persons sent out for that purpose from 
the city ; but that all continued to come into the city to wor- 

1 Ep. Lib. 10. 97. 



RISE OF EPISCOPACY. 249 

ship. Such also is the representation of Justin Martyr, who 
says, " that on the day which was called Sunday, all that live 
in the city and in the country come together in the same 
place," 2 for religious worship. 

When, in process of time, it became expedient for Chris- 
tian converts in the country to have separate places of wor- 
ship, these new organizations took the form of the parent 
church, and still looked to that for instruction and support as 
they might need. The new churches bore, indeed, a strik- 
ing resemblance to the " chapels of ease " in England ; hav- 
ing a similar dependence upon the mother-church. This 
dependence gave rise to a gradual connection and coalition, 
between the churches in the country, and the central church 
in the city. In this connection and coalition, between the 
original church and the smaller ones that sprang up around 
it, began that change in the original organization of the apos- 
tolical churches which gave rise to the Episcopal system; 
and, which in the end, totally subverted the primitive sim- 
plicity and freedom in which the churches were at first found- 
ed. This dependence and consequent coalition was the 
result of various natural causes and local circumstances 
which claim a more specific enumeration. 

1. The churches in the country were only branches of 
the parent stock, and owned a filial relation to the mother 
church. 

2. They received their first spiritual teachers and pastors 
from this church ; and these would naturally retain their at- 
tachment to the church from which they came, and use their 
influence to unite with it that to which they went. 

3. The connection between the country and the city, in 
the ordinary course of business, had its influence in bringing 
the churches in the country into connection with that in the 
city. 

4. The persecution, and consequent distress which came 

2 Apol. c, 67. p. 83. 



250 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

upon the churches, brought them into closer connection one 
with another. 

5. The city was the centre of political influence and pow- 
er, for the government and protection of the country. This 
consideration had its influence in promoting a similar rela- 
tion between the churches in the city, and those in the coun- 
try. — The people had long been subject to the civil authority 
which was concentrated in the city ; and on this account they 
yielded the more readily to a similar control from the same 
quarter over the affairs of the church. 

6. The church itself was deservedly the object of respect. 
It had been founded, it may be, by one of the apostles, and 
still enjoyed the ministry of a successor placed at a short re- 
move from them, to whom it was natural to look for counsel 
and support. 

" An ancient custom obtained, of attributing to those church- 
es which had been founded by the apostles a superior degree 
of honor, and a more exalted dignity. On which account it 
was for the most part usual, when any dispute arose respect- 
ing principles or tenets, for the opinion of these churches to 
be asked ; as, also, for those who entered into discussion of 
any matters connected with religion, to refer, in support of 
their positions, to the voice of the apostolic churches. We 
may, therefore, very readily perceive the reason which, in 
cases of doubt and controversy, caused the Christians of the 
West to have recourse to the church of Rome ; those of Af- 
rica, to that of Alexandria ; and those of Asia, to that of An- 
tioch for their opinion ; and which, also, occasioned these 
opinions to be, not unfrequently regarded in the light of laws, 
namely, that these churches had been planted, reared up and 
regulated, either by the hand or under the immediate care of 
some one, or more of the apostles themselves." 3 

7. The city-church was comparatively rich and powerful ; 
and could administer to the wants of the feeble churches as 

3 Mosheim, De Rebus Christ., Saec. II. § 21. 



RISE OF EPISCOPACY. 251 

they might need. For this reason, especially in times of dis- 
tress and persecution, they clung as closely as possible to the 
parent-church. 

8. Protection and aid from the civil authority was chiefly 
to be sought through the same medium. The minister of 
the city could apply in their behalf to the Roman governors 
who resided there. Or if a direct application was inexpe- 
dient, there were still many ways and means, by which to 
operate secretly upon the magistrates, and their subordinate 
officers, for the advantage of the churches in the country. 
Christian converts were not unfrequently entrusted with some 
civil office, in which they could aid their brethren in the 
country. 

Thus, in various ways, the churches in the large cities, in 
process of time, gathered about them several smaller churches 
in the vicinity, over which they extended their guardianship 
and care. The clergy of the central churches had a con- 
trolling influence over those in the neighborhood, which was 
conceded to them by common consent ; and which in reality 
was not at first oppressive, but beneficial to the subordinate 
churches. It was, however, a silent surrender of their origi- 
nal and inherent right as independent bodies ; and led on 
to an entire change in the ecclesiastical polity of the primi- 
tive church, as established by the apostles. 

The above representations disclose the true origin of that 
ecclesiastical aristocracy which succeeded to the popular 
government of the apostolical churches. They exhibit the 
rise of the diocesan form of government, not as based on 
any ' theory of the church,' but as the result of the mutual re- 
lations of the churches in the country to that in the city. 
The church of the metropolis gradually spread itself out as 
an extensive parish over the adjacent territory. And the 
bishop of this city became, virtually, the bishop over the same 
extent of country. " Was it not natural," says Planck, after 
alluding to many of the circumstances above-mentioned, " was 



252 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

it not natural, and according to the ordinary course of things 
to make a distinction between the bishop of the city, and the 
other clergy? Would not they themselves, cheerfully make 
the distinction, and give him special tokens of their conside- 
ration? Would they not accost him with peculiar respect; 
and by silent consent, give him the pre-eminence? And 
would he not, on the other hand, requite all this by his man- 
ifold services? Hence arose those new relations which laid 
the foundation for the metropolitan system." 4 

Throughout the second and third centuries, there was no 
established law or rule, binding the smaller churches in a co- 
alition with the greater, or bringing them into subjection to 
it. It was wholly a conventional arrangement, a matter of 
expediency and convenience, resulting from various circum- 
stances that have already been detailed. But that which at 
first was conceded voluntarily, was afterwards claimed as a 
right. Conventional usage became established law ; the con- 
trolling influence of the bishop, an official prerogative; and 
thus, in the end, the diocesan form of government was settled 
upon the church. 

Siegel and Ziegler have given two examples from Fuchs, 
in illustration of these relations between the parent church 
and those of the country adjacent. It appears that a question 
had arisen between the bishop of Nice and the bishop of 
Nicomedia respecting the jurisdiction of Basilinopolis, a small 
city in the neighborhood of Nice. This city was originally 
a small village, but had so increased as to be invested by 
Justinian with the rights and privileges of a city, and as such 
belonged to the jurisdiction of the metropolitan of Nicome- 
dia. But, as a village adjacent to Nice, according to the 
views above stated, it was under the jurisdiction of the bishop 
of Nice, who had himself ordained the presbyter of Basilinop- 
olis as a bishop in accordance with the old order of things,and 

4 Gesellschafts-Verfass., I. S. 82, 83. Comp. also, 546—562, re- 
specting this system at a later period. 



RISE OF EPISCOPACY. 253 

in direct violation of the metropolitan rights of the bishop of 
Nicomedia, who claimed the exclusive right to ordain bishops 
in his own province. The only defence which the bishop of 
Nice could offer, was to claim jurisdiction over it on the 
ground of its relation to Nice; it having formerly belonged 
to the precincts of that city as a neighboring and dependent 
church. The instance goes to show that such relations had 
existed, and were still regarded as valid, even under the me- 
tropolitan system then in force. 

The second example is derived from the region of the Mare- 
otis, near Alexandria. In this whole extent of country so 
late as the fourth century, there was no bishop, or rural bishop,. 
chorepiscopus ; but only presbyters, who were under the juris- 
diction of the bishop of Alexandria; and so jealous was he of 
his prerogative, that he had refused, for this length of time, 
any other ministry to the churches of the Mareotis than that 
of presbyters. 

The same state of things is apparent from the relations of the 
presbyters in the city to the bishop, in contrast with those of 
presbyters in the country. When in process of time, several 
distinct churches were found in a given city, the presbyter* 
of these churches refused themselves to acknowledge a subor- 
dination to the bishop similar to that of the presbyters in the 
country. They claimed an equality with him. They had 
elected him from their own number ; and they continued to 
regard him only as primus inter pares ; and, as ministers in 
the metropolis, claimed precedence over those in the country* 
Thus in the letter of the Ariansto Alexander, the bishop and 
all the clergy of Alexandria first affix their signature. Then 
follows that of three bishops from other parts of Egypt; all 
which serves to illustrate the subordination of the clergy in 
the country to those in the city. 

This view of the subject is not new ; nor is it put forth as 
original with the writer. It has the sanction of many authors 
22 



254 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

from whom the above particulars have been derived. Of 
these, it is sufficient to mention, Spittler, 5 Pertsch, 6 Mos- 
heim, 7 Planck,s Neander, 9 Guerike, 10 Siegel, 11 Schoene, la 
W. B6hmer,i3 D'Aubigne.1 4 

II. Of the early ascendency of the bishops in the cities 
over those in the country. 

In close connection with the foregoing changes in the gov- 
ernment of the churches and in their relations to each other, 
there were others which were equally influential in disturbing 
the mutual relations which had hitherto subsisted, both among 
the clergy and between the bishop of the city and the clergy 
in the country. 

1. Of these changes, the most important is the division of 
the clergy into the separate orders of bishops and presbyters. 
The ordinary priesthood, as established under the apostles, 
constituted, as we have seen, but one class or order ; and 
were denominated, indiscriminately and interchangeably, 
bishops and presbyters. The great historian, to whom the 
reader is indebted for the Introduction which stands at the 
head of this volume, ascribes the origin of this distinction to 
the second century, and its full development to a period con- 
siderably later. 15 Waiving, in this place, the further discussion 
of this vexed question, we will here state the origin of this dis- 
tinction, according to Siegel and others, as a fair expression 

5 Can. Rechts. § 4—10. 

6 lb. § 17—23, und Kirchen Hist., Sec. II. 

7 De Rebus Christ. Saec, II. § 37, note 3. 

8 Gesell. Verfass. S. 18—83, 546—572. 

9 Allgem. Kirchen Gesch. 1. 2d ed. S. 314—316. 

10 lb. S. 95—97. 

11 Khchliche Verfass. 2. S. 454—473; 4. S. 378. 

12 Geschichtsforschungen, Vol. 3. S. 336 — 340. See also, Cone. 
Carthag. c. 31. Bracar. c. 1 . Agath. c. 53. Tarracon. c. 8. 

13 Alterthumswissenschaft. 1. S. 230—236. 

14 Hist, of Reformation. Vol. 1. p. 18. N. Y. 1843. 

15 Comp. his Apost. Gesch. 1, 50, 198 seq, 406. Allgem. Kirch. 
1, 327, 328, 2d ed. 



RISE OF EPISCOPACY. 255 

of the prevailing views of those who deny the original supe- 
riority of the bishop and the apostolical origin of Episcopacy. 

There was at first but one church in a city, to which all 
the Christian converts belonged. But the care of the church 
was entrusted, not to one man, but to several, who constitu- 
ted a college of presbyters, and divided the duties of their of- 
fice among themselves. This arrangement was analogous to 
that of the Jewish synagogue, after which the church was or- 
ganized. A plurality of persons everywhere appear in the 
Acts as the representatives of the church at Jerusalem, 
They represent, also, the church at Ephesus, Acts 20 : 17 
— 28 ; and at Philippi, Phil. 1 : I. Titus was also instructed 
to ordain elders in all the cities in Crete. In such a college 
of elders sharing a joint responsiblity in the care of the church- 
es, it would obviously be convenient if not indispensable, for 
one of their number to act as the moderator or president of 
their assemblies. Such a designation, however, would con- 
fer on the presiding elder no official superiority over his fel- 
low-presbyters ; but, coupled with age, and talents, and spirit- 
ual gifts, it might give him a control in their councils, and in 
the government of the church. This control, and this official 
rank, as the 7tQ08(7zc6g, the presiding elder, which was first 
conceded to him by his fellow-presbyters only as to a fellow- 
presbyter, a primus inter pares, he began in time to claim as 
his official prerogative. He first began by moral means and 
the influence of accidental circumstances to be the bishop of 
the church, and afterwards claimed the office as his right. 
This assumption of authority gave rise to the gradual distinc- 
tion between bishop and presbyter. It began early to disturb 
the relations of equality which at first subsisted between the 
ministers of the churches; and, in the course of the second 
and third centuries, resulted in the division of the clergy into 
two distinct orders, — bishops and presbyters. 

This simple exposition of the origin of the Episcopal office 
has the sanction of the most approved authority, particularly 



256 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

of the distinguished historian whose works we have so often 
cited, 16 to whom we may add Gieseler, 17 Guerike, 18 Gabler, 19 
Mosheim, 20 Pertsch, 21 and many others. 

2. The duties and responsibilties of the bishop in times 
of persecution, had their influence in exalting this officer, and 
separating him further, both from the presbyters and the peo- 
ple. Under such circumstances, the bishop of the metropo- 
lis became the counsellor and guardian of the churches. In his 
wisdom, his talents, and his influence were their confidence 
and trust. To him the needy and distressed also looked for 
consolation and relief. 

3. The rage and vengeance of their persecutors fell oftenest 
upon him; and, while it excited for him the sympathy and 
veneration of the churches, prepared them more readily to 
acquiesce in his authority. 22 

4. As the church increased in number, the intercourse 
between each member individually and the bishop became 
less, and a corresponding separation between him and his 
people of necessity ensued. 

16 Apost. Kirch. 1. 39 seq. 3d ed. 50. 198 seq. 406. Allgem. Gesch. 
1. 324 seq. 2d ed. " i.n the Acts, a plurality of presbyters always ap- 
pears next in rank to the apostles, as representatives of the church at 
Jerusalem. If any one is disposed to maintain that each one of these 
presbyters presided over a smaller part of its special meetings, still it 
must be thereby established, that, notwithstanding these divided 
meetings, the church formed a whole, over which this deliberative 
college of presbyters presided, and therefore the form of government 
was still of a popular character." — Neander Apost. Kirch. 1. c. 2. 3d 
ed. " This plurality of ministers over the same church continued, 
even to the fourth century, to be the order of the churches." — Planck, 
Gesell. Vcrfass. 1, 551. 

17 JLehrbuch der Kirchengesch. 3. Aufl. 1. 118. 

18 Kirch. Geschichte, 1. S. 89—93, 2d ed. 

19 De Epis. primae eccl. eorutnque origine. 

20 Hist. Eccl. 3. p. 108 seq. and Kirchenrecht, by Ernst, S. 52. 

21 Can. Recht. S. 42. Kirch. Hist., Saec. II. c. 5. § 8—15. Com- 
pare, especially, Ziegler's Versuch der Gesch. der Kirch. Verfass. S. 
34— (51. 

22 Spittler's Can. Recht. c. 1. § 5. 



RISE OF EPISCOPACY, 257 

o. Many of the bishops were the successors of the apos- 
tles, or were bishops of apostolical churches, and this cir- 
cumstance gave them additional influence. 23 The bishops 
of Rome, 24 of Carthage, of Jerusalem, 25 and others, derived 
importance from this consideration. The decisions and re- 
gulations of those churches, which had been planted by the 
hand, or reared up under the immediate supervision of the 
apostles, had, with other churches, not unfrequently a ca- 
nonical authority equivalent to that of statute laws. 26 

6. The distinction between the clergy and laity, which be- 
gan about this time, is worthy of particular notice. In the 
apostolical churches the office of teaching was not restricted 
to any particular class of persons. All Christians accounted 
themselves the priests of God ; and between the church and 
their spiritual leaders very little distinction was known. This 
fact is so universally acknowledged, that it were needless to 
multiply authorities in proof of it. But it forcibly indicates 
the nature of the original constitution of the church. 27 The 

23 Comp. Tertull., De Praescript. Advers. Haeret. c. 20, 26,36. 
Peter de Marca, de Concord. Sacerd. et Im. Lib. 5. c. 20. Lib. 7. c. 
4. § 6 seq. 

24 Irenaeus Advers. Haer. Lib. 3. c. 2; 4. c. 26; 5. c. 20, 44. 

25 Firmil. ap. Cyp. Epist. 75. 

26 Mosheim, De Rebus Christ., Saec. II. § 21. In this section and 
the accompanying note is given a full and interesting illustration of 
tbe canonical authorities of such churches. Comp. also, Gieseler, 
Lehrbuch, S. 160—163. Note. 

27 Nonne et laici sacerdotes sumus ? DifFerentiam inter ordinem 
etplebem constituit ecclesiae auctoritas ; adeo ubi ecclesiastici ordinis 
non est consessus et offers, et tingis et sacerdos tibi es solus. — De Ex- 
horted. CastiL c. 7. p. 522. Primum omnes docebant et omnes bapti- 
zabant ; ut cresceret plebs et multiplicaretur omnibus inter initia con- 
cessus est et evangelizare et baptizare et scripturas explorare. — Hila- 
ry, cited by Neander, Mlgem. Gcsch. 1. S. 311. Comp. S. 324 seq., 
especially 335 — 337, 2d ed. Comp. Cyprian, Ep. 76. Suicer, Thesau- 
rus, art. tdrjQog, Guerike, Kirch. Gesch. Vol 1. 93, 94, and J. H. Boh' 
mer, De Differentia inter Ordinem Ecclesiast., etc. 

22* 



258 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

distinction, accordingly, of pastors and people into two dis- 
tinct orders, the clergy and the laity, distinctly marks the 
workings of that spirit which was fast obliterating the fea- 
tures of its early organization. Tertullian, t218, is the first 
to mention this distinction. 28 The people have now become 
an inferior order, the distinction between them and the high- 
er order of the clergy widens fast, and the government of the 
church which has hitherto been vested in the people, passes 
rapidly into the hands of the bishop. 

7. The clergy begin to claim authority from the analogy 
between their office and that of the Jewish priesthood. The 
officers of the church were originally organized according to 
the order of the Jewish synagogue. The name and office of 
rulers of the synagogue were transferred to the church. But 
the bishops now begin entirely to change their ground, and 
to claim analogy to the Jewish priesthood of the Old Testa- 
ment. They are no longer incumbents in office at the plea- 
sure of the people, and dependent upon them ; but divinely 
constituted the priests of God ; and divinely appointed by him 
to instruct and to rule over the church. " When once the 
idea of a Mosaic priesthood had been adopted in the Chris- 
tian church, the clergy soon began to assume a superiority over 
the laity. The customary form of consecration was now 
supposed to have a certain mystic influence, and henceforth 
they stand in the position of persons appointed by God to be 
the medium of communication between him and the Chris- 
tian world." 2 9 

8. From this it was but a slight modification to assert the 
divine right of Episcopacy, and the apostolical succession in 
the line of the bishops. Sentiments to this effect are of fre- 
quent occurrence in the writings of Cyprian, t 258. The 

28 De Monogamia, c. 12. p. 533. 

29 Gieseler, Cunningham's Trans. I. p. 156. Comp. Milnscher, 
Handbuch der Christ. Dog. 3. p. 15. Conder's Protestant Noncon- 
formity, Vol. I. p. 224. Comp. Planck, Gesell. Verfass. I. S. 163. 
Mosheim de Rebus. Saec, II. § 24. 



RISE OF EPISCOPACY. 259 

bishops also assumed new titles, such as sacerdotes, 30 priests, 
high-priests, rulers of the church, etc. 31 

Finally, these arrogant asssumptions ended in the claim of 
guidance and wisdom from on high, by the communications 
of the Spirit of God. This was also the false and flattering 
dream of Cyprian, 32 and has been the favorite dogma of pre- 
lacy, from his time to the present day. These claims of the 
bishop to a divine commission and to illumination from above 
were more confidently put forth at a later period, after the 
hierarchy had become more fully established. 

The following comprehensive summary offers a fit conclu- 
sion to the preceding remarks. "In process of time," says 
Mosheim, " the bishops found means to abridge the rights of 
the presbyters, the deacons, and the people. Such is the 
course of the world. They who are honored with the respect, 
and entrusted with the affairs of society, agreeably to the nat- 
ural love which every man has for pre-eminence, seek for 
greater distinction, and the people favor the desire. Strife 
and contention are the necessary consequence of dividing 
offices of trust among many ; and these struggles usually end 
in the advancement of him who is highest in office. Even 
Cyprian, who acknowledged the authority of the church over 
the bishop, and his duty in all things to act in concert with 
the clergy, had still the address so to exalt the power of the 
bishop as to overthrow the rights both of the clergy and the 
people. He affirmed that God made the bishops ; that they 
were the vicegerents of Christ, and responsible to none but 
to God. He was the father of this dogma ; and the bishops 

30 Comp. Cyp. Ep. 3. 4, 59. Spittler's Can. Recht. c. 1. § 11. 
Henke, Allgem. Gesch. der Christ. Kirch. 1. p. 120. Mosbeim, De 
Rebus, Saec. HI. § 24. 

31 Origen, Horn. 2. in Jer. Adv. Cels. Lib. 3. In Math. Tract. 
31,32. 

32 Placuit nobis sancto spiritu suggerente et Domino per visiones 
multas et manifestas adraonente. — Cyprian, Epist. 54. p. 79. Cone. 
Car. A. D. 252. 



260 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

continued to claim this prerogative until the ninth century, 
when the pope appropriated it exclusively to himself. The 
rights of the people and of the clergy were, in process of time 
wrested from them ; they retaining only a negative vote. The 
bishops proceeded, themselves, to appoint the presbyters and 
deacons. The people were, at first, consulted by the bish- 
ops, but it was only an unmeaning form. The bishop car- 
ried the appoinment of his favorite candidate ; and the refer- 
ence to the people was a mere act of courtesy. They were 
the agents of God. Opposition to their will was disobedience 
to him. The deacons became the creatures of the bishop, 
dependent upon him alone, and having little concern with the 
people. In a word, the deacons, even in the second century 
were, in many places, no more what they were at first. In 
ecclesiastical matters, the people were still consulted in some 
form, either by the bishop in person or by deputies ; but they 
had no votes either individually or collectively. When any 
measure of importance was to be carried, the bishops first se- 
cured the interest of the presbyters in their favor ; and when 
by various means, they had accomplished this, it only re- 
mained for the people to yield a respectful acquiescence. 
Some occasionally dissented, but the measure was generally 
carried, agreeably to the will of the bishop." 33 

The bishops rose in rank and power, as we have seen, not 
by any sudden and violent assumption of diocesan authority, 
but by the silent concession and approbation, at first, of the 
people. Their authority and influence was, at the outset, only 
that which is conceded to talent and piety in official stations, 
employed and exerted for the general good. " So that the 
growth of Episcopal power is not altogether attributable to 
ambitious designs on the part of those by whom it was first ex- 
ercised. So far from this, the effect, as Dr. Campbell has re- 
marked, ' is much more justly ascribed to their virtues.' How 

33 Kirchenrecht, by Ernst. S. 61—63. 



RISE OF EPISCOPACY. 26] 

paradoxical soever this may sound, it is difficult to account 
in any other way for the unopposed ascendency which was 
so soon obtained by men, whose ambition, had it betrayed it- 
self when as yet Unarmed by wealth or power, required but 
to be withstood, in order to be rendered harmless. That 
deference was, however, lavishly conceded to personal cha- 
racter, from a principle of veneration and unbounded confi- 
dence, which it would have been next to impossible openly 
to wrest from people roused to a jealous sense of their rights." 34 
Their influence was analogous to that of a modern missiona- 
ry over the churches which he has gathered about him in dif- 
ferent stations ; or it resembled that which the apostles and 
first preachers exercised over the churches which were planted 
by them. It is only to be regretted, that these bishops, in claim- 
ing to be the successors of the apostles, in office and in power, 
had not also enough of the spirit of their reputed ancestors, 
to employ the high trust which was committed unto them 
solely for the interest of the churches under their care ; and 
then to resign it again for the same great end, instead of per- 
verting the sacred privileges of their office into the means of 
gratifying their unholy ambition in the extension of the Epis- 
copal prerogatives. 

We have here an easy explanation of the difficulty which 
the advocates of prelacy affect to press with great force, in 
calling upon us to explain the origin of Episcopacy, on the 
supposition that it is not of divine appointment. Here, we 
are told, is an alleged usurpation, "without discussion, with- 
out excitement, without opposition, without known authors or 
abettors ; a radical and permanent overthrow of an existing 
system of church government throughout the whole Roman 
empire, before the apostles were cold in their graves." 
Now, a hundred years is surely time enough to allow for one 

34 Conder's Nonconformity, 1. p. 227. Campbell's Lectures, pp. 
94, 95. Mason's Works, Vol. III. p. 217 seq. Dr. Barrow's Trea- 
tise on Popish Supremacy, 



262 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

to grow cold in his grave. But, all oratory apart, it is con- 
ceded that here is a change, an early change, and one made 
without controversy or opposition. And we are earnestly 
pressed for an explanation. We accept the challenge; and 
appeal to the considerations already suggested as an adequate 
explanation. Is it strange, under all the circumstances of 
the case, that the care of the churches should devolve upon a 
few? Is it a thing incredible, that men should love the exer- 
cise of power, and find means to secure it? Does history 
give no trace of any transition from a free and popular govern- 
ment to one more despotic ? What was the end of the an- 
cient republics of Greece? What succeeded to the popular 
government of consular Rome? How did the popular 
movement in the French Revolution terminate ? All history, 
ecclesiastical and secular, shows how easily the sovereign 
power of the many may pass into the hands of a few. But 
in the instance before us, the churches, in confiding simplici- 
ty and sincerity, conceded to their spiritual rulers the rights 
in question by tacit consent. And after long-continued usage, 
the sanctions of synodical decrees, aided by the claim of apos- 
tolical succession, of divine right, and of the teachings of the 
Spirit of God, seem quite sufficient to guarantee to bishops 
the quiet possession of their Episcopal prerogatives. 

" Power," says Dr. Hawkes, himself an eminent Episcopa- 
lian, " always passes slowly and silently, and without much 
notice, from the hands of the many to the few; and all 
history shows that ecclesiastical domination grows up by 
little and little. The overwhelming tyranny from which 
the Reformation freed the Protestant church, grew up by this 
paulatim process." 35 

Besides, Episcopacy arose in an age of comparative igno- 
rance, when there were few historical records. In such a 
state of things an innovation might have been easily intro- 
duced which supported clerical influence and authority, and 

35 Cited in Smyth's Eccl. Republicanism, p. 166. 



RISE OF EPISCOrACY. 263 

in the lapse of a few years it might be generally acknowledged 
as having been of immemorial existence in the church. The 
Episcopal church itself presents a pertinent case in illustra- 
tion of this position. Very few of that communion know or 
believe that the prescribed mode of baptism in the church of 
England is immer sion. This, however, is precisely and accu- 
rately the fact. The words of the formulary for the public 
baptism of infants in their book of common prayer are as 
follows : " then, naming it after them (if they shall certify 
that the child may well endure it) he (the priest) shall dip it 
in the water discreetly and warily, saying, etc. But if they 
certify that the child is weak, it shall suffice to pour water 
upon it." In this, under circumstances the most improbable, 
an innovation has been made of which the mass of the people 
are totally ignorant. The mode of baptism has been entire- 
ly changed without their knowledge or belief, while every 
churchman holds in his hand the prayer-book which describes 
the exact manner in which the ordinance shall be adminis- 
tered. Shall we wonder then at the gradual change in the 
government of the church in that early age, when every thing 
favored its introduction, and in the absence of any written 
constitution, or remaining records of the primitive church? 

" Different from their modern followers, must have been 
those ancient Presbyterians, not to have struck a single blow !" 
True, indeed, but not at all different from their modern Amer- 
ican successors, were those primitive Episcopalians, in yield- 
ing tamely to the continual encroachments of Episcopal pow- 
er. Nay, we contend that the progress of Episcopacy in this 
country is itself a phenomenon more extraordinary, more un- 
accountable, than the rise and progress of Episcopacy in the 
ancient church. 

It is well known that the introduction of Episcopacy into 
this country gave rise to a long and bitter controversy. The 
objection, made from within the Episcopal churches as well 
as from without, was, that its form of government is anti-re- 



264 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

publican, and opposed to the spirit of our free institutions. 
The House of Burgesses, in Virginia, composed chiefly of 
Episcopalians, declared their abhorrence of bishops, unless 
at the distance of three thousand miles, and denounced " the 
plan of introducing them, in the most unexceptionable form, 
on this side of the Atlantic, as a pernicious project." 

When, at last, Episcopacy was introduced, it was only by 
a compromise, — the Episcopalian churches consenting to sub- 
mit to diocesan Episcopacy, only in a form greatly modified, 
and divested of its most obnoxious features. To the exclu- 
sion of the laity from a free and full participation in the affairs 
of the government they would not for a moment submit. 
Such, according to Bishop White, was the prejudice of Epis- 
copalians, "against the name, and much more against the 
office of a bishop, that, but for the introduction of the laity 
into the government of the church, no general organization 
would probably have been formed." Accordingly, the people 
were allowed freely to choose their own pastors, and to have 
a full representation in all their courts. This American Epis- 
copacy was so modified, and the prelatical powers of the bish- 
op so restricted by the checks and balances of republican prin- 
ciples, that the English prelates, on the other hand, were reluc- 
tant to confer thje Episcopate upon Bishop White, alleging 
that he " entertained a design to set up Episcopacy on the 
ground of presbyterial and lay authority." 

Such was American Eiscopacy, at first, — qualified as 
much as possible, by the infusion of popular principles, to 
restrain the arbitrary powers of the bishop. But what now 
has this same Episcopacy become ? What now the powers of 
the bishop, compared with what they then were? He pos- 
sesses power almost as arbitrary as that of an Eastern despot; 
and assumes to rule by an authority independent of the will 
of his subjects. The bishops are permanent and irresponsi- 
ble monarchs, restrained by nojudicial tribunal. The house 
of bishops admit no order of the inferior clergy to their 



RISE OF EPISCOPACY. 265 

general convention. They ordain, depose, and restore to 
the ministry, at pleasure, whom they will ; " so that a Pusey- 
ite bishop may fill the church with impenitent and unconver- 
ted men." He can prevent any congregation from settling 
the minister of their choice, or displace one at his will, and 
may, " upon probable cause" forbid any clergyman from aib- 
other diocese to officiate in his own. Such is the fearful na- 
ture of those powers which are now entrusted to this spiritual 
despot in our free republic 36 

And yet as if all this ominous accumulation of Episcopal 
prerogatives were not enough, the claims of the bishops are still 
pressed higher and higher. The house of bishops, with all its 
powers, has been superinduced upon the general convention, 
since its establishment in America. Now these privileged 
hierarchs can only be tried by themselves ; ?'. e., if a president 
be guilty of any crime or misdemeanor whatever, he must be 
impeached and tried by a jury of presidents alone; a govern- 
or, by a jury of governors. In one convention, the bishop 
lately claimed and exercised the prerogative of adjusting 
the roll of the members, denying to them the right of all delib- 
erative assemblies, — that of deciding upon the qualifications of 
their own members ; and the same convention, " by a vote of 
nearly three to one," meekly acquiesced in this claim of their 
prelate. 37 Another convention provides that its proceedings 
" shall not be open to the public." It gives to the bishop an 
absolute veto upon all their acts ; and, to crown the whole, 
makes him " the judge in all ecclesiastical trials." Well may 
we say with Dr. Hawkes, " Nothing but this was wanting 
to make him absolute. We will speak, and speak out, 
when we see all power, legislative, judicial, and executive, 

36 These astounding facts and principles, with, the original author- 
ities for them, are disclosed more at length in the writings- of Dr. 
Smyth, to whom we are chiefly indebted for the above abstract of 
them. Compare, especially, Apost. Succession?, pp. 507 — 509, and 
Ecclesiastical Republicanism, pp. 153 — 172. 

37 Letters to the Laity by a Protestant Episcopalian, p. 17. 

23 



266 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

centred in one man in such ample plenitude, that he may 
even dictate to the fashion of a surplice, or the shape of a 
gown." 38 

This admirable specimen of religious legislation, we are 
told, was actually prepared by the bishop himself, and ratified 
in a state more radically democratic than any other in the 
Union ! " Let any man read that constitution, and then say, 
whether, if the individual who has been thus extravagantly 
exalted, had dared to brave the public sentiment of the country 
in which he lives, so far as to carry out into practice the au- 
thority which has been thus lavishly bestowed upon him, Ave 
should not have to look to the mountains of Vermont for the 
mightiest spiritual autocrat at present inhabiting the globe, 
— with, perhaps, one exception, the man who wears the tiara, 
and builds his habitation on the seven hills." 39 

Consider now this enormous extension of the Episcopal 
power in this enlightened age, in this free republic, — this 
monstrous spiritual despotism imposed upon a people, jealous 
above all men of their rights, and prompt to repel every in- 
vasion of them ; — contemplate such a people, under such cir- 
cumstances, with scarcely a feeble note of remonstrance, 
bowing themselves down to this hierarchal supremacy, and 
shall we wonder at the early rise of a mild and compara- 
tively unformed Episcopacy 1 Shall we marvel at the gradual 
extension of its influence over feeble churches, dependent 
for their support and protection ? Why should this be thought 
a thing incredible, in view of what is transpiring in the midst 
of us? 

38 New York Review, Oct. 1835, cited in Letters to the Laity. 

39 Letters to the Laity, p. 27. — The late transactions in the dio- 
cese of New York are fresh in the public mind, and familiar to all ; — 
the high-handed despotism of the prelate, and the profound self- 
abasement with which a large portion of his clergy could consent to 
kneel down in the dust at the feet of their sovereign pontiff and crave 
his benediction. 



CHAPTER VIII. 

THE DIOCESAN GOVERNMENT. 

This term denotes the ecclesiastical organization which 
succeeded a fuller development of the Episcopal system, and 
farther concentration of power in the hands of the bishop. It 
was gradually matured, and was settled upon the churches in 
the several provinces, at different times, extending through an 
indefinite period. The establishment of this form of govern- 
ment cannot with precision be assigned to a specific epoch. 
Suffice it to say, that the third century may be regarded as 
the period in which the diocesan government was chiefly con- 
solidated and established. It was the result of a variety of 
causes, which deserve a careful consideration, and was pro- 
ductive of consequences of great moment to the interests of 
religion. The course of our inquiries in relation to the estab- 
lishment of Diocesan Episcopacy will lead us to consider, 

I. The means of its development. 

II. Its results. 

I. Means of its development. 

1. The formal organization of the diocesan government 
was chiefly effected by means of provincial synods and coun- 
cils. 

The consideration of these councils belongs to another 
work. 1 But whatever may have been their origin, such ec- 
clesiastical assemblies were regularly held in Asia Minor, in 

1 Christian Antiquities, chap. 17. § 9. pp. 35(j — 367. 



268 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

the third century, and were frequently convened in other 
provinces, for the transaction of business relating to the in- 
terests of the church. 2 They were summoned by the presid- 
ing bishop of the province. The bishops of the province 
were expected to attend, and if any were present from other 
provinces, they were courteously recognized as members of 
the same. The presbyters and deacons, also, had at this 
time, in the opinion of many, a seat and a voice in these coun- 
cils, though at a later period they were excluded. The 
council, on the one hand, was the highest judicature of the 
church, where all that related to its interests in the province 
was discussed ; on the other, it served as a privy-council to 
the bishop. Here, especially, were all cases brought relating 
to the bishops. Cases of this kind could only be brought be- 
fore the council in a full assembly of the bishops, and even 
then not at pleasure, but only with their consent. Such an 
assembly, it must readily be seen, afforded a convenient me- 
thod of deciding any subject of common interest to the church- 
es ; though the bishops themselves probably were not aware 
of the important consequences which might result from assum- 
ing thus to give laws to the church. The decisions of the 
synod, also, at first, assumed the form of law, rather by com- 
mon consent, than as imperative enactments. They were 
the decisions of a public deliberative and representative as- 
sembly, in which the voice of the majority becomes the law 
of the whole ; and under the sanction of such authority, were 
received as the rule of the church. But the bishops, having 
once acquired the power of giving laws to the church, soon 
changed the ground of their authority ; and, instead of legis- 
lating for those churches in their name, and as their repre- 
sentatives, they assumed the right of giving laws to the church 
by virtue of their Episcopal office ; and for this assumption, 

2 Necessario, says Firmilian, A. D. 257, apud nos fit, ut per singu- 
los annos seniores et praepositi in unum conveniamus, ad disponenda 
ea quae curae nostrae commissa sunt. — Cyp. Ep. 75. p. 143. 



THE DIOCESAN GOVERNMENT. 269 

they claimed, as has been already mentioned, the sanction of 
divine authority, jure divino, as the ministers of God, and un- 
der the guidance of his Spirit. 3 

The above representation is only an epitome of the senti- 
ments of Planck, in his work on the Constitution of the 
Church, which has been so frequently cited. 4 They accord 
entirely with the representations of Mosheim, and many oth- 
ers who might be named. 5 Mosheim remarks, that these 
councils " were productive of so great an alteration in the 
general state of the church, as nearly to effect the entire sub- 
version of its ancient constitution. For, in the first place, 
the primitive rights of the people, in consequence of this new 
arrangement of things, experienced a considerable diminution, 
inasmuch as thenceforward none but affairs of comparatively 
trifling importance were ever made the subject of popular de- 
liberation and adjustment; — the councils of the associated 
churches assuming to themselves the right of discussing and 
regulating everything of moment or importance; as well as 
of determining all questions to which any sort of weight was 
attached. — In the next place, the dignity and authority of the 
bishops were very much augmented and enlarged. In the 
infancy, indeed, of the councils, the bishops did not scruple 
to acknowledge that they appeared there merely as the min- 
isters or legates of their respective churches ; and that they 
were in fact nothing more than representatives acting under 
instructions. But it was not long before this humble lan- 
guage, began by little and little, to be exchanged for a loftier 

3 Placet ! Visum est ! is the style not unfrequently, in which the 
summary decisions of their councils are given ; or if the decision re- 
lates to an article of faith, credit cathoiica ecclesia ! Athanasius, De 
Synodo. Arimin. et Seluciae, Ferdin. De Mendoza, De Confirmatione 
Cone, 111. Lib. 2. c. 2, cited by Spittler. 

4 Gesellschafts-Verfass. 1. S. 90—100. 

5 Compare also Henke and Vater, Allgemein. Kirchen Gesch. I. 
S. 120 seq. Eichhorn, Can. Recht. I. S. 20. Riddle's Chron. pp. 
32, 33. 

23* 



270 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

tone ; and they, at length, took it upon them to assert that 
they were the legitimate successors of the apostles themselves 
and might, consequently, by their own proper authority, dic- 
tate to the Christian flock. To what extent the inconveni- 
ences and evils arising out of these preposterous pretensions 
■reached in after times, is too well known to require any par- 
ticular notice in this place." 6 Some of these remarks, how- 
ever, are especially applicable, as the intelligent reader will 
perceive, to the state of things which existed somewhat later, 
under the metropolitan government. 

2. The doctrine of the unity of the church had an influ- 
ence in consolidating the churches under an Episcopal gov- 
ernment. 

This notion was early developed. It first occurs in the 
epistle of the church of Smyrna, concerning the martyrdom 
of Polycarp. 7 It was more distinctly advanced by Irenaeus 
and Tertullian, in the second century ; and, in the third, be- 
came the favorite dogma of Cyprian, 8 and, after him, of 
many others. 9 The effect was to create greater oneness of 
feeling and concert of action among the churches as mem- 
bers of one and the same body. It brought the churches into 
more frequent correspondence; and, in many ways, con- 
tributed to the establishment of uniform laws and regulations 
under an Episcopal hierarchy. 10 This idea of a holy catholic 
church, one and indivisible, extending through all lands, and 
binding together in one communion the faithful of every kin- 
dred and people, was a conception totally unlike the apostoli- 

6 De Rebus Christ., Saec. II. § 23; Comp. Saec. II. § 22; Saec. 
III. § 24. Also, Kirch. Recht. S. 65, 66. 

7 Euseb. Eccl. Hist. Lib. 4, c. 15. § 1. 

8 Pro corpore totius ecclesiae cujus per varias quasque provincias 
membra digesta sunt. — Ep. 30. p. 41. 

9 Planck, Gesell. Verfass. I. S. 100 seq. Rothe, Anf. Christ. Kirch. 
I. S. 576—589. 

10 Neander, Allgem. Gesch. I. S. 355, 371, 2d ed. D'Aubigne's 
Hist, of the Reformation. N. Y. 1843. Vol. I. pp. 20—22. 



THE DIOCESAN GOVERNMENT. 271 

cal idea — of union in love and fellowship in spirit. What- 
ever may have been the motive with which it was at first pro- 
mulgated, it had its influence in blending the churches to- 
gether under a uniform diocesan organization, and became 
the occasion of no small share of the bigotry, intolerance and 
persecution which have so often dishonored the Christian 
church. 

3. The correspondence and intercourse between the bish- 
ops of different provinces had much influence in establishing 
their diocesan authority. 

Not only were the results of their councils officially com- 
municated to foreign bishops and churches, but the bishops 
themsel ves of different dioceses were in mutual correspondence. 
Their own appointment to office, and their various official 
acts, were duly communicated. By mutual understanding 
they acted unitedly and in concert, and aided each other in 
the promotion of their common ends. Their acts of ecclesi- 
astical censure were extensively published ; so that one under 
the Episcopal ban was followed by his sentence of excom- 
munication wherever he went. He must also return to his 
own bishop to be restored again to the fellowship of the 
church. Without credentials also duly certified by his dio- 
cesan no stranger was entitled to the confidence of any body 
of believers. The effect of these regulations was to sustain 
and enforce the authority of the bishops in their dioceses. 11 

4. The Disciplina Arcani, the sacred mysteries of the 
church, while they shed an air of awful sanctity over its so- 
lemnities were well suited to inspire the people with a pro- 
found veneration for the bishop, who was the high-priest of 
these rites and the chief agent in administering them. 

The discussion of this subject would be altogether foreign 
to our present object, but it needs no peculiar sagacity, to 
perceive that the system addressed itself to principles of our 

11 Siegel, Handbuch. 1. art. Briefwechsel, Rheinwald's Arch. § 4. 
p. 99. 



272 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

nature, which are deep and strong, and which acted upon by 
the ministrations of the bishop, gave him prodigious power 
over the minds of men. This secret system, wholly un- 
known in the earlier history of the church, was in a measure 
matured in the period now under consideration. 12 

5. The catechetical instructions and discipline preparatory 
to admission into the church, had a powerful influence in 
giving authority to the doings of the church, and preparing 
the mind for a passive submission to her jurisdiction. 

Throughout the first century Christian converts were re- 
ceived by baptism into the church simply on the ground of 
their faith in Christ. In the second century some further 
instruction began to be required ; and, in the course of the 
third and fourth, a long preliminary course of training was 
necessary, before the candidates found admission to the 
church. They were divided into various classes; and, as- 
cending by slow gradations through these, with manifold so- 
lemnities, they finally approached the sacred shrine of the 
church. The details of the system belong to another sub- 
ject. But every reader, who has the least acquaintance with 
the antiquities of the church, must readily perceive, that in 
this long course of discipline, extending often through a series 
of years, the catechumen might be duly trained to revere the 
authority of the church, and to submit with all deference to 
the agents by whom it was administered. Without attribut- 
ing it to any sinister motive, its natural effect would be to 
inspire a profound respect, both for the ordinances of the 
church, and for those who administered them. 13 " These 
new regulations," Planck remarks, " were the surest and 
strongest means man could have devised to give greater im- 
portance to the church in the eyes of the new members ; 
and to inspire them with a sense of the importance of the 

12 Comp. the author's Christian Antiquities, c 1. § 4. pp. 35, 36. 

13 Comp. the author's Christian Antiquities, c. 2. § 5. pp. 49 — 57. 



THE DIOCESAN GOVERNMENT. 273 

privilege bestowed in receiving them into its communion, 
which again would revert to the interests of the church." 14 

6. To the same effect, also, was all that system of pen- 
ance, which was matured in connection with the foregoing 
regulations. 

This was wholly unknown in the early period of the 
church. It was developed in connection with the catechet- 
ical discipline which has already been mentioned, and was 
indeed a part of the same system. 15 It was administered by 
the bishop, who alone had authority to inflict or to remove 
these penances. 16 It was a scourge in his hand which he 
could, at any time, apply to those who might become the ob- 
jects of his displeasure. 

The transgressor who fell under ecclesiastical censure was 
doomed to give token of penitence, by a long train of the 
most humiliating acts, better suited by far to illustrate the tre- 

14 Gesell. Verfass. 1. S. 132. 

15 Planck, Gesell. Verfass. 1. S. 132—141. 

16 The councils of Nice, A. D. 325, c. 5, and of Antioch, A. D. 
341, c. 20, make some provision against the flagrant injustice which 
one might suffer in this way from the bishop. But the council of 
Elliberis, A. D. 305, and of Sardica, A. D. 347, give to the bishop 
unlimited authority in this matter. Osius, episcopus dixit. Hoc 
quoque omnibus placeat, ut sive diaconus, sive presbyter, sive quis 
clericorum ab episcopo suo communione fuerit privatus, et ad alterum 
perrexerit episcopum, et scierit ille ad quem confugit, eum ab episco- 
po suo fuisse abjectum, non oportet ut ei communionem indulgeat. 
Quod si fecerit, sciat se convocatis episcopis causas esse dicturum. 
Universi dixerunt : Hoc statutum et pacem servabit, et concordiam 
custodiet, c. 13 (16). This was one of the most celebrated councils 
of the age. It was composed of one hundred and sixty-six bishops 
convened both from the Eastern and Western churches, at the head 
of whom was the venerable Hosius, who it would seem proposed it 
as an expedient to preserve peace and harmony among the bishops. — 
El rig xXrjQixog rj Xaixog dcpojQiafievog qroi ddexrog, dneX&olv ev exiqa 
TidXei, dey&jj dvev yQajujudrojv ovazanxwVj d(pOQiiead'oj xal 6 §e£d/u€- 
vog xal 6 Sey&elg • el Se oyojQio/uevog efy, inireivead'co avriS 6 dcpo- 
Qio/udg; o)£ yjevaa/uevq xal aTraTrjoavTi rijv exxXqoiav rov d"eou. — Can. 
Apost.VZ(\?>). p. 2. 



/ 

274 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

mendous power of the bishop than to lead the offender to 
true repentance. However that may be, a despotic govern- 
ment is strong and stable in proportion to the force of those 
sanctions, by which it secures obedience to its authority. 
The rigors of this penance, accordingly, invested the dioce- 
san with authority adequate to the administration of his gov- 
ernment. 

If any minister received to his communion one who had 
not fulfilled the appointed penance, he was himself liable to 
the sentence of excommunication. 

II. Results of the diocesan organization. 

Under this head we shall confine our attention chiefly to 
its influence in establishing an aristocracy in the church, 
and in preparing the way for a full development of the hie- 
rarchy, under a metropolitan organization, to which the dio- 
cesan soon gave place. 

1. It established the pre-eminence of the bishop in the 
city over the neighboring churches. 

The distinction which conventional usage had first given 
him now became an established right. It was his official 
prerogative to nominate the presbyters to these churches. 
These presbyters continued still dependent upon him ; and 
the churches themselves acknowledged a similar relation to 
the parent church. Thus his became a cathedral church, 
ubi cathedra episcopi, from which the others had proceeded, 
and to which they acknowledged a filial relation. 

2. It was a virtual disfranchisement of the laity. 

They had, indeed, a voice in the elections of the bishop ; 
and some little participation still in the management of the 
concerns of the church. But the sovereignty of the people 
was effectually lost. Everything was done agreeably to the 
will of the bishops, who united in themselves the right to make 
and execute laws for the government of the church. This 
union of the executive and legislative power in the same per- 



THE DIOCESAN GOVERNMENT. 275 

sons was subversive of all true religious liberty, as it ever has 
been of all political freedom. It removed the checks and 
guards of a popular government against the exercise of arbi- 
trary power. It invested the bishops with prerogatives, which 
can never be entrusted, with safety, to any man or body of 
men. The subsequent history of the church abundantly il- 
lustrates the disastrous consequences of this surrender of the 
popular rights into the hands of the clergy. " To revive 
Christ's church is to expel the Antichrist of the priesthood, 
which, as it was foretold of him, as God, sitteth in the temple of 
God, showing himself that he is God, and to restore its dis- 
franchised members, the laity, to the discharge of their pro- 
per duties in it, and to the consciousness of their paramount 
importance," 17 

3. The government was oppressive to the laity, as it en- 
trusted to the bishop exclusively the right of ecclesiastical 
censure. 

This right, again, may have been exercised, at first, with 
moderation, and often with single regard to the purity of the 
church and the honor of religion. But it gave the bishops 
a dangerous control over the private members of the church. 
Its tendency was to inspire them with the fear of man ; to 
make them more careful to escape the censure of the dioce- 
san, than anxious to avoid sinning against God. How strict- 
ly this prerogative of the bishop was guarded we have al- 
ready seen. The passport of the bishop was indispensable 
to commend a stranger to the fellowship of his Christian 
brethren. The absence of this was presumptive evidence 
against him. Under censure, he had no redress, however 
unjustly it might have been inflicted ; and could only be re- 
stored at the pleasure of his own diocesan. Such was the 
subjugation to which this system of government reduced the 
laity; — a subjugation, to which the laity of the Episcopal 
church in America seem also to be rapidly sinking, under 

17 Christian Life, by Arnold, p. 52. 



276 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

the continual encroachments of the bishops upon their rights. 
" To confine the decisions of all cases which must arise in 
every well-ordered society, to the clergymen, or to the clergy 
alone, and thus to consolidate in their hands the entire gov- 
ernment of the body, is contrary to the very first law of all 
society, which provides that no man shall be judge in his own 
cause. On this principle, there is no society, no freedom, no 
protection from oppressive and despotic rule, no bulwark 
against that resistless tide, with which power, when lodged 
in the hands of a few weak and imperfect men, encroaches 
upon the territory, and the just rights, of all who are opposed 
to it. Nor can that ecclesiastical system be possibly repub- 
lican, or consonant to the genius of our free commonwealths 
which subjugates the laity to the clergy, and the inferior 
clergy, as they are ignobly called, to the higher, and which 
attaches a supremacy of power to an aristocratic class." 18 

4. It destroyed the independence of the clergy under the 
diocesan. 

They who, by their proximity to the bishop, were brought 
into familiar intercourse with him, or were not so immediately 
dependent upon him, still maintained a certain degree of inde- 
pendence. But the principle of subordination, and of sub- 
jection to the authority of the diocesan, was inherent in the 
system, and clearly manifested. His authority was, indeed, 
far less oppressive at first than it afterwards became. There 
was a strong republican spirit, that could not be rooted out, 
or crushed at once. The churches had still some voice in 
the management of their affairs. They had a right to ap- 
point, and to remove their clergy at pleasure, — a right, which 
even Cyprian, in the middle of the third century, fully ac- 
knowledges. He admits, that the " people, in obedience to 
the commands of the Lord, and in the fear of God, ought to 
separate themselves from a minister of an immoral character ; 
nor should they mingle in the services of a sacrilegious priest, 

18 Smyth's E ccl. Republicanism, pp. 81, 82. 



THE DIOCESAN GOVERNMENT. 277 

for they especially have power to choose the worthy, and to re- 
fuse the unworthy." 19 This right of the church afforded the 
clergy, also, the means of resisting the encroachments of the 
bishops, by making interest with the people. It was, accor- 
dingly, the policy of the bishops at this time, to exercise their 
authority with moderation. 

The presbyters also were still the privy-counsellors of the 
bishop, in ecclesiastical matters, and preached and baptized 
in common with him, with this distinction, that in the dis- 
charge of these duties, the bishop took precedence of the 
other clergy. Still the authority of the bishop was such as 
practically to destroy the independence of the clergy ; and, in. 
theory, was imperative over them. 

But the bishops soon found means to effect the complete 
subjection of the clergy to their control. They allowed them 
in no instance, to travel into a neighboring province without 
a passport from the bishop. Much less could a presbyter or 
deacon transfer himself from one church to another, without 
the bishop's consent. If any one should presume so to do, or 
if another should receive hmi who came without the bishop's 
consent, the consequence was expulsion from office. 20 

19 Propter quod plebs, obsequens praeceptis dominicis et Deum 
metuens, a peccatore praeposito separare debet, nee se ad sacrilegi 
sacerdotis sacrificia miscere quoniam ipsa raaxime habeat potestatem 
vel eligendi dignos sacerdotes, vel indignos recusandi. — Ep. 68. p. ]18. 

20 El Tig TiQsafivTSQog ?j diaxovog >/ oXoog tov xaxaXoyov zav 
xlrjQixav a.JioXelipccg tijv iavTov thxqoixlccv slg exigav aniXO-j], xal 
TtavTtXwg [j.sTct(TTag diaTglfi?] iv aXXy naqoixlu naga. yvMfxrjv tov 
Idlov hnio~xonov ' tovtov xeXsvofxsv (Arjxhv XuTovgyuv, fiaXicna u 
ngogxaXovpivov avxbv tov inurxonov ixvtov stkxvsX&uv ov% vm]- 
xovatv enifisvojv xfj octoc^Icc ' oog Xa'ixog (xsvtol ixslaE xolvwveItg). — 
Apost Can., 14 (15), Brum, p. 3. Comp. also, Cone. Antioch, c. 
3. Laodic. c. 42. Arelat. c. 21. Chalced. c. 20. Nice, c. 16. 
Carthag. 1. c. 5. Sardic. 16, 18, etc., etc. Siegel, 11. S. 462. 

24 



278 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

5 It entrusted the bishop with a dangerous prerogative, by 
giving him the control of the revenues of the church. 

This was a prerogative alike dangerous and unjust in its 
character, and injurious in its practical results. It was an 
established principle in the polity of the church, at this time, 
that the bishop, who had the supremacy in spiritual things, 
ought the more to have the same in things temporal. 21 Ac- 
cordingly, the goods and property of the church, its revenues, 
and receipts of every kind, were submitted to the disposal of 
the bishop. It was, indeed, expected that they would be used 
with moderation, and equitably distributed, according to a 
certain rule. The other clergy were entitled to act in concert 
with the bishop in the distribution ; but there was still abun- 
dant opportunity for the exercise of arbitrary power. The 
bishop was virtually, amenable to no one, for he could only 
be impeached by his clergy,, who received their monthly ra- 
tions from him, divisionem mensurnam, and who accordingly, 
would be slow to endanger their living by exposing themselves 

21 Harrow xwv sy.xXrjaiao'xixitiv ifgayfidxwv 6 inlaxonoQ e/exo) 
T7\v (pqovxlda xal dioixslxo.) aura, co? &eov scpogwvxog * fii] Qslrai 
ds airw ocpiTEQL&a&cd xi t<i? avrojv ij avyytvicriv Idloig xd xov 
&£ov xagl&cr&ai ' eI ds nsvrjxsg eIev, ETn/og^yEixo} ojg nivrjcriv, 
aXXa firi ngocpavsi xovxov xa xr t g sxxXrjalug dnEfinoXilxia. ITqo<j- 
idxxo\isv inlffxoTiov i$ovcriav e/siv xoav xr\g ExxXtjcrlag ngayfxdxoiv ' 
u yag xotg xifilag xwv wv&gojnitiv ipv^ag ctvxoj tiigxevxeov, noXXw 
civ (zaXXov dioi inl xwv xg^fxdrwv evteXXev&ixi, wars xaxct xijv av- 
tov E^ovalav navxn dioixsia&ai, xa\ xdig dio[iivoig did xcjv ttqeo- 
fivxigiav xai diaxovojv ETn%0Qiiyt7(T\}(u y,exd cp6fiov xov 3eov xai 
7idar\g svXapEiag' ^.sxala^pdvEiv ds xai avxbv xwv dsovxwv {fi'ys 
di&ixo) stg tag avayxaiag «i/tw xgsiag xai xmv stti^evovjuevojv 
adsXcpwv, cag xaxa ^ir\diva xgonov avxovg io'XEgt'ia&ai ' 6 yag vo- 
fiog tov <&eov diExat-aio, xovgxw &vaiarrxr l glo.) VTirjgexoivxag ex iov 
<&vo~iaaxr}glov xgsq>so~&ai' stieitieq olds crxgaxiwxal noxs idloig 
oijjiavloig onXa xaxa noXsplav snicpsgovxai. — Apost. Can. 37 (39), 
40 (41), Bruns, pp. 6, 7. 



THE DIOCESAN GOVERNMENT. 279 

to his displeasure. Under these circumstances, they were 
reduced to a humiliating subordination, which exposed them 
to the oppressive exactions of arbitrary power, while it gave 
security to the bishop in the exercise of it. How closely 
some of our modern bishops have copied after this odious ca- 
non, we have seen at the close of the preceding chapter. 

The council of Antioch, A. D. 341, gave the bishops en- 
tire control over all the property of the church ; and the sy- 
nod of Gangra, A. D. 362 — 370, pronounced their solemn 
anathema upon any one who should either give or receive any 
of the goods of the church without authority from the bish- 
op. 22 The oppressive results of this system are clearly and 
concisely stated by Siegel, 23 and more at length by Planck. 24 
Without the guidance of another, however, they must be 
obvious to any one. The subsequent history of the church 
is the best expositor of this policy ; as unjust, as it was impoli- 
tic and injurious. " Responsibility to the people, is, there- 
fore, a fundamental principle of republicanism ; a responsibili- 
ty which gives the most insignificant contributor of his mo- 
ney towards any object, a right to examine into the manner in 
which it is disbursed." 25 

22 EX Tig xaqnocpoolag ixxXricriavTixag i&iXot, Xafxfidveiv t} di- 
dovca e$a) TTJg exxXrjcrlag naoa yvuy,r\v tov imaxonov rj tov iyxs- 
%£iqig[a£vov t« Toiama, xal [it] yaxd yvco^qg avxov i&iXoi, Jigdx- 
xeiv, ava&ffia lorco. EX Tig diddlrj Xa^dvot xagnoopoglav na- 
Qsxxbg tov lixiaxonov i) tov in LTSTct/fisvov slg olxovo^ilav mnoC'Cag, 
xal 6 didovg xal 6 Xafifidvafv avd&t^a IVtw. — Cone. Gang. 7, 8, 
Bruns, p. 103. Comp. Cone. Aurel. 1. c. 14, 15. 

23 Handbuch, 11. S. 463. 24 Gesell. Verfass. I. S. 381—402. 
25 " The great rule of all free institutions, — that the people alone 

shall lay taxes, — a vital principle of all constitutional government,— 
an essential guaranty of all safe public administration, — has become 
involved, is at stake ; that solemn canon of republican creeds, — that 
high fundamental law, — no, sir, not a law, the mere part of a code, 
or a constitution ; it is itself a constitution ; for, give but that, and 
a real constitution must follow ; take it away, and there is an end of 



280 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

6. It gave the bishop unjust power over the clergy, by allow- 
ing him to inflict upon them ecclesiastical censure. 

These censures were, indeed, administered at first with 
caution, and not without the concurrence of a part, at least, of 
the clergy and of the church. Such moderation was requisite, 
to prevent a combination of the clergy and the people against 
the bishop ; and the more so, before the introduction of that 
insidious regulation which gave the bishop, who inflicted the 
penalty, the sole right of removing it at pleasure. This craf- 
ty policy, introduced partly by direct coalition on the part of 
the bishops, and partly by silent consent on the part of the 
people, had more influence than any other in completing the 
subjugation of the clergy, and settling upon the churches 
the government of an oppressive ecclesiastical aristocracy. 
The right of appeal to the civil authority was also strictly 
denied. 26 

7. It was the occasion, in a great degree, of breaking 
down the good order and discipline of the church, which 
had hitherto prevailed. 

This was the direct result of those collisions between the 
bishops and presbyters, to which we have already alluded. 
u The bishops claimed to have the highest authority, and 
acted accordingly in the government of the church. The 
presbyters refused to acknowledge this claim, and strove to 
make themselves independent of the bishops. This strife 
between the Presbyterian and Episcopal systems is of the 
utmost importance in developing the moral and religious 
state of the church in the third century. Many presbyters 
made use of their influence to disturb the order and disci- 
pline of the church. This strife was, in every way, inju- 
rious to its order and discipline." 27 

all practical freedom." — Mr. Archer's Speech in Congress, Aug. ], 
1842. See Locke on Government, c. 7. § 94. Works, Vol. II, p. 
254. — Smyth's Eccl. Republicanism, p. 27. 

26 Cone. Antioch, Can. 11. 

2 ? Neander, Allgem. Kirch. Gesch. I. S. 329, 330, 2d ed. 



CHAPTER IX. 

THE METROPOLITAN GOVERNMENT. 

This was a more comprehensive organization, to which 
the diocesan soon gave place. It is not easy to determine 
with precision the date of its establishment. It was not the 
production of a day, but the result of a gradual modification 
of the diocesan government, by a further concentration of 
Episcopal power, and the extension of its influence over a 
wider range of territory. These modifications were not al- 
together the same in every country, nor were they simulta- 
neously effected. The metropolitan government was devel- 
oped in the Eastern church as early as the first half of the 
fourth century. The council of Nice, A. D. 325, c. 4, 
ordered, that the " bishops should in the provinces be subject 
to the metropolitan ;" and again, c. 6, " that no one should 
be appointed bishop without the consent of the metropoli- 
tan." The council of Antioch, A. D. 341, c. 9, defined and 
established fully the rights of the metropolitan. 

The establishment of a hierarchy in the West followed at 
a period somewhat later. The Christian religion was not 
introduced so early into the West, as into the East. It was 
also still more blended with paganism, especially in the pro- 
vinces and remote districts ; and the government of the 
churches was more unsettled than in those of the East. 
Still, the metropolitan government was finally introduced in- 
to the several districts of the Western church. 
24* 



282 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

The capital of the province was not, of necessity, the 
seat of the metropolitan see, nor did the limits of metropoli- 
tan jurisdiction uniformly coincide with those of a province. 
In Africa peculiar respect was paid to seniority in office. 
The bishop of Carthage, however, was usually regarded as 
the primate of the country. The African church was also 
distinguished for its peculiar attachment to the free and pop- 
ular constitution of the primitive church ; and, to some ex- 
tent, successfully resisted the encroachments of metropoli- 
tan usurpation. It would be interesting to pursue this 
branch of the subject, and inquire into the causes which led 
to the selection of those cities which became the seats, respect- 
ively, of the several metropolitan sees, but we must content 
ourselves with simply saying, that this distinction was con- 
ferred upon Jerusalem, Antioch, Caesarea, Alexandria, Eph- 
esus, Corinth, Rome, Carthage, Lyons, and others. Thus 
in time the metropolitan government, in place of the dioce- 
san, was settled upon the whole Christian church. 

I. Means of its establishment. 

The supremacy which the bishops had already acquired, 
together with the rapid extension of Christianity, soon in- 
troduced this organization as a new form of the hierarchy. 
After becoming the state religion under Constantine, Chris- 
tianity spread with great rapidity. Small churches became 
large Christian communities, of sufficient importance to 
claim the privilege of having bishops of their own, in the 
place of presbyters. These bishops, however, like the pres- 
byters who preceded them, still sustained certain relations to 
the bishop of the metropolis ; and, in many ways, conceded 
to him the pre-eminence. It was his prerogative to summon 
the meetings of the synod, to make the introductory address, 
to preside over their deliberations, and to publish the results 
of their council. The publication of these results made him 
known in all the churches. All official returns from other 



THE METROPOLITAN GOVERNMENT. 283 

churches and councils were also made to him, — all which 
contributed to establish his superiority, and to give him a 
controlling influence over the other bishops of the province. 
These provincial bishops soon became emulous of receiv- 
ing consecration at the hands of the metropolitan ; and, ac- 
cordingly, he began as opportunity presented, to assume to 
himself the exclusive right of ordaining. Thus the process 
of centralization went steadily on, widening the circle of its 
influence, and drawing those at a greater distance within 
the power of the primate. 

This authority was, as yet, wholly conventional, so that 
his official superiority was virtually conceded to him, and es- 
tablished, before the intention was entertained of confirming 
it by statute-law. The name of Metropolitan had not yet 
been conferred upon him, but in the councils of this period 
he is styled primate, primate of the apostolical see, etc. 1 But 
about the beginning of the fourth century, the prerogatives 
of the metropolitan began to be the subject of statute-regu- 
lations. As in civil matters, the smaller towns and villages 
were dependent upon the larger, and all mutually dependent 
upon the capital of the province, so in the church, the 
country was divided into ecclesiastical districts, correspond- 
inor even in name, with those of the state. Thus the church 
received from the Roman state, without change of significa- 
tion, the terms, metropolis, diocese, etc. ; so that the names 
of the different orders of the clergy denoted not their official 
duties, so much as their local relations and relative rank. 
Hence, the names of rural and city bishops, — provincial, 
diocesan, and metropolitan? 

We have now reached that period in the history of the 
church, in which its government appears in almost total 

1 Com. Ziegler's Versuch. S. 69 — 71. 

2 The development of the metropolitan system is briefly stated 
by Siegel, Handbuch, U.S. 264 seq. ; and more at length, by Planck, 
Gesell. Verfass. I. S. 572—598, and by Ziegler, S. 61—164. 



284 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

contrast with that of its apostolical and primitive organiza- 
tion. The supreme authority is no longer vested in the 
church collectively, under a popular administration, but in 
an ecclesiastical aristocracy ; and the government of the 
church is thus entrusted to a clerical hierarchy, who both 
make and administer the laws, without the intervention of 
the people. This, then, is a proper point at which to pause, 
and contemplate the practical results of the system of eccle- 
siastical polity which has taken the place of that which the 
church originally received at the hands of the apostles. 

II. Results of the system. 

These may be contemplated in their relations to the laity, 
to the clergy, and to the general interests of religion. 

1. In regard to the laity. 

(«) It destroyed the sovereignty of the church as a collec- 
tive body. 

The sovereign authority had formerly been vested, not in 
the apostles, not in the clergy, but in the whole body of the 
church. Its members, collectively, enjoyed the inherent 
right of all popular assemblies, — that of enacting their own 
laws and regulations, and of controlling the execution of them 
by electing their own officers, for the administration of their 
government. Under the Episcopal government, this cardi- 
nal right, the only basis of all rational liberty, civil or reli- 
gious, was taken away from them. They had no part in 
framing the rules by which they were governed. Though they 
still retained some control over the election of their spiritual 
rulers, the system itself was already a virtual disfranchise- 
ment of the people ; and finally resulted in the total separa- 
tion of the people from all part even in the elections to eccle- 
siastical offices. The law-making power was now entirely in 
the hands of the bishops, who gave laws to the people, under 
the pretended sanction of divine authority, and executed them 
at their own pleasure. The result is given by Planck, in the 



THE METROPOLITAN GOVERNMENT. 285 

following terms : " From the spirit of most of the ordinances 
which these new lawgivers made for the laity, this much, at 
least, is apparent in the execution of them, that they were di- 
rectly designed or adapted to bring the people yet more un- 
der the yoke of the clergy, or to give them opportunity more 
frequently and firmly to exercise their power." 3 

(b) It exposed the laity to unjust exactions, by uniting the 
legislative and executive branches of government. 

The union of these has ever been the grand expedient of 
despotic usurpation ; and it is as true in church as in state, 
that when these two great departments of government are 
united in one and the same man, or body of men, the subju- 
gation of the people is well nigh completed. They may have 
wise and good magistrates, who will graciously extend over 
them a virtuous administration ; but the checks and restraints 
by which the popular rights are guarded in every free gov- 
ernment, are effectually removed. They were thus taken 
away in the church by the organization now under consider- 
ation. The people had no adequate protection against the 
exercise of arbitrary power, nor any available mode of redress, 
under the injustice to which they stood exposed. 

But the clergy enjoyed many privileges, by which on the 
one hand they were in a measure shielded from the opera- 
tion of the law, and on the other, were entrusted with civil 
and judicial authority over the laity. Three particulars are 
stated by Planck. 

1. In certain civil cases they exercised a direct jurisdiction 
over the laity. 

2. The state submitted entirely to them the adjudication 
of all offences of the laity, of a religious nature. 

3. Certain other cases, styled ecclesiastical, causae ecclesi- 
asticae, were tried before them exclusively. 

The practical influences of this arrangement, and its effects 

3 Gesell. Verfass. I. S. 452, 453. 



286 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

upon the clergy and the laity, are detailed by the same author, 
to whom we must refer the reader. 4 

(e) The laity were, separated injuriously from the control 
of the revenues which they contributed for the maintenance 
of the government of the church, and for charitable pur- 
poses. 

This obnoxious feature in the ecclesiastical polity which 
prevailed at this time, has been already mentioned. It is, 
obviously, an equitable principle, that every man or body of 
men should be at liberty to do as they will with their own. 
This principle requires every government that respects the 
rights of the people, to submit to them, in some form, the con- 
trol of the revenue. To deny them this right is injustice, op- 
pression, unmitigated despotism. The hierarchy was a spirit- 
ual despotism, which completed the subjugation of people, by 
depriving them of a just participation in the disbursement of 
the revenues of the church. All measures of this nature, in- 
stead of originating with the people, as in all popular govern- 
ments, began and ended with the priesthood. 5 The wealth of 
the laity was now made to flow in streams into the church. 
New expedients were devised to draw money from them. 6 
Constantine himself also contributed large sums to enrich the 
coffers of that church, which he also authorized, A. D. 321, 
to inherit property by will. 7 This permission opened new 
sources of wealth to the clergy, while it presented equal in- 

4 Gesell. Verfass. I. S. 308 seq. 

5 Cone. Gan. Can. 7, 8. Bracar. 11. c. 7. The above canons 
clearly indicate the unjust and oppressive operation of this system. 

6 It was a law of the church in the fourth century, that the laity 
should, every Sabbath, partake of the sacrament ; the effect of which 
law was to augment the revenues of the church, each communicant 
being required to bring his offering to the altar. Afterwards, when 
this custom was discontinued, the offering was still claimed. — Cong. 
Again. A. D. 585. c. 4. 

7 Cod. Theod. 4, 16. Tit. 2, C. 4. Euseb. Lib. 10. 6. Sozomen, 
Lib. I.e. 8. Lib. 5. 5. 



THE METROPOLITAN GOVERNMENT. 287 

centives to their cupidity. With what address they employed 
their newly-acquired rights is apparent from the fact stated 
by Planck, "that in the space often years every man, at his 
decease, left a legacy to the church ; and, within fifty years 
the clergy in the several provinces, under the color of the 
church, held in their possession one tenth part of the entire 
property of the province. By the end of the fourth century, 
the emperors themselves were obliged to interpose to check 
the accumulation of these immense revenues: — a measure 
which Jerome said he could not regret, but he could only 
regret that his brethren had made it necessary." 8 Many other 
expedients were employed to check this insatiable cupidity, 
but they only aggravated the evil which they were intended 
to remove. 

(d) The system in question was not only a violation of the 
natural rights of the laity, but it was equally injurious to their 
spiritual interests. 

If it be important that the people should appoint their ru- 
lers in civil government, much more is it, that they should 
control the appointment of those who are to be over them in 
the Lord. It is a serious objection to this system that it in- 
terfered with this religious privilege. The clergy were ap- 
pointed by the bishop; and the bishop again, was elected by 
the clergy. The intervention of the people was often a mere 
form, and even the form itself was finally discontinued. A 
ministry imposed in this manner upon a people, must of ne- 
cessity be coldly received and comparatively barren in its re- 
sults. This topic opens a fruitful subject of remark, but it 
has already come under consideration, and we submit it 
without further notice to the reflections of the reader. 

(e) The tendency of this form of government was to ren- 
der the laity indifferent to the religious interests of the 
church. i 

8 Gesell. Verfass. I. S. 281. Comp. Pertsch, Kirch. Hist. sec. 11. 
c. 9. 



288 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

It left them no part in administering the concerns of the 
church ; and the consequence seems inevitable, that they 
would do little for the promotion of its purity. The moral 
obligation rested, indeed, upon them, but they naturally, and 
almost necessarily, became in a great measure insensible to it, 
having little opportunity to act directly in the fulfilment of their 
duty. If scandals abounded, it belonged not to them to re- 
move them. If a case of discipline occurred, its management 
began and ended with the clergy. Everything tended to sepa- 
rate the laity from the care of the church ; and practically to in- 
fluence them to neglect the duty of watching and striving to- 
gether for the maintenance of practical godliness among all 
its members. Their religious and covenant obligations, if ac- 
knowledged, pressed not upon them with the interest of an ur- 
gent and present duty. Such also was the severity of the pe- 
nalties which the system of penance inflicted that, by mu- 
tual consent, they connived at the offences of the church, 
and concealed them, to prevent the bishops from exercising 
their authority in this way; and thus the discipline of the 
church came to be neglected. 

(f) The tendency of the system was to sunder the private 
members of the church from each other, and to interfere with 
their mutual fellowship and watchfulness. 

The connection of each member of the church was, at its 
commencement, a transaction between him and his bishop or 
presbyter. The ordinary members of the church, having no 
agency in the transaction, could have little oneness of feeling 
or union of spirit, with those who were, from time to time, 
enrolled on the records of the church. They were received 
to the ordinances of the church, rather than to the fellowship, 
the confidence and affection of brethren, one with them in 
heart, in sympathy and Christian love. The estrangement 
under such circumstances is mutual. Nor is it easy to see 
how there could be that blending of spirit and flow of love 
among all the members, and that mutual watchfulness for 



THE METROPOLITAN GOVERNMENT. 289 

each other's welfare, which Christ designed as one of the 
richest privileges of Christian fellowship. 

This mutual estrangement, and the general neglect of 
Christian watchfulness and discipline which dishonored the 
church at this time, are forcibly exhibited by Eusebius, who 
lived in the age now under consideration ; he says, — " After 
Christianity through too much liberty was changed into lax- 
ness and sloth — then began men to envy and revile one an*- 
other ; and to wound one another as if with arms and spears 
in actual warfare. Then bishop arose against bishop, and 
church against church. Great tumult prevailed, and hypo- 
crisy and dissimulation were carried to the highest pitch. And 
then began the divine vengeance, as is usual, to visit us ; and 
such was the condition of the church that the most part came 
not freely together." 9 

" As things now are," says Chrysostom, " all is corrupted 
and lost. The church is little else than a stall for cattle, or 
a fold for camels and asses ; and when I go out in search of 
sheep I find none. AH are rampant and refractory as herds 
of horses and wild asses ; everything is filled with their 
abounding corruptions." 10 Similar sentiments occur abun- 
dantly in the writers of the third and fourth centuries, and in 
the ages following. 

(g) This system was a gross infringement on the right of 
private judgment in religion. 

It was a law strictly enforced that every layman should be- 
lieve blindly, without inquiry, without evidence, all that the 
church, represented by the bishop in synod, should prescribe. 
The evidence he was not competent to examine. Here is 
the origin of that papal policy which denies the Bible to 
the laity, and the pattern of that "prudent reserve" which 
Puseyism inculcates in preaching the gospel to the common 
people. The exercise of one's private judgment, leading him 

9 Eccl. Hist. 8. c. 1. 

10 Chrysostom, Horn. 89, in Math. Vol. VII. p. 830. 

25 



290 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

to dissent from the prescribed articles, was not only regarded 
as a heinous sin, but as a violation of the law of the state, 
punishable with severe penalties. 11 

" In endeavoring by the secular arm, to compel all the 
Christians to entertain the same speculative opinions, on the 
questions then debated, the sovereigns at once turned free 
discussions into controversy and strife. They inflamed in- 
stead of extinguishing party spirit. They formally divided 
the church into sects. They entailed the disputes of their 
own times, as an inheritance of sorrow to posterity, and wrote 
Intolerance over the portal of the house of God." 12 

2. Results of the metropolitan government upon the clergy. 

The clergy, under this system, appear in many respects in 
strong contrast with the ministry of the apostolical and primi- 
tive churches. 

(a) Their grades of office are greatly multiplied. Instead 
of two classes, of ecclesiastical officers, as the ordinary minis- 
ters of the church, there are now many, in different degrees 
of rank, defined with the precision and guarded with the cau- 
tion almost of military or naval discipline. The increase of 
the churches would, of necessity, require a corresponding in- 
crease in the number of its ministers. So that even in the 
second century, there were Christian churches which had 
twenty or thirty presbyters and sometimes as many deacons. 13 
This latter class, however, was more generally limited to the 
number of seven. 14 But we have now several entirely new 
classes of officers in the church, sub-deacons, acotyths, read- 
ers, exorcists, door-keepers, etc. To these were subsequently 

11 Sozomen, Eccl. Hist. Lib. 7. c. 6. Codex Theodosian, L. 16. 
tit. 3. 1. 2. 

12 Rev. Thomas Hardy, cited in Dr. Brown's Law of Christ, re- 
specting civil obedience, p. 512. 

13 Christ. Antiq. Art. Deacons, chap. 3. § 10. p. 107 seq. 

14 The church at Rome under Cornelius, A. D. 250, had 46 presby- 
ters, 7 deacons, 7 sub-deacons, 42 clerks, besides 52 exorcists, read- 
ers, janitors, etc. Euseb. Eccl. Hist. Lib. 6. c. 43. 



THE METROPOLITAN GOVERNMENT. 291 

added many others, advocates, avvdixoi, apocrisiarii, cimeli- 
archs, custodes, mansion arii, notorii, oiconomoi, syncelli, etc., 
etc. The specific duties of these several officers are briefly 
stated in the author's Antiquities of the Christian Church, 1 ^ 
and more at length in the larger works of Bingham, Augusti, 
Siegel and Boehmer. These new offices, some of which 
were merely titular, had their origin, not in the exigencies of 
the church, but from other causes, which indicate still fur- 
ther changes in the ministry and the existing government, 
that remain to be mentioned. To one of these, allusion has 
already been made, but it requires a more specific considera- 
tion. 

(b) The distinctions between the different orders of the 
clergy are drawn with great care, and cautiously guarded. 

The councils of the period abound with canons defining 
the boundaries of the several grades of the clergy. Hence- 
forward history is especially employed in describing their er- 
rors and disputes. Gregory Nazianzen, A. D. 360, in view 
of these ambitious contentions, exclaims, "How I wish there 
had been no precedence, no priority of place, no authorita- 
tive dictatorship, that we might be distinguished by virtue 
alone. But now this right hand, and left hand, and middle, 
and higher and lower, this going before and going in com- 
pany, have produced to us much unprofitable affliction, — 
brought many into a snare, and thrust them out among the 
herd of the goats ; and these, not only of the inferior order, 
but even of the shepherds, who, though masters in Israel, 
have not known these things." 16 " I am worn out — with con- 
tending against the envy of the holy bishops ; disturbing the 
public peace by their contentions, and subordinating the 
Christian faith to their own private interests.". ..." If I must 
write the whole truth, I am determined to absent myself from 
all assemblies of the bishops ; for I have never seen a happy re- 
sult of any councils, nor any that did not occasion an increase 

15 Chapter IV. pp. 119—130. 16 Orat. 28. Vol. I. p. 484. 



292 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

of evils, rather than a reformation of them by reason of these 
pertinacious contentions, and this vehement thirst for power, 
such as no words can express." 17 

(c) The clergy manifest a strong party feeling. 

There is an esprit du corps, which separates them in in- 
terest and feeling from the lower orders of officers and from 
the private members of the church. They have become one 
party, and the church another; each with their separate in- 
terests. And these, too often, are contrary, the one to the 
other. This spirit manifested itself particularly in their sy- 
nods, where the bishops sought to depress as much as possible 
the other orders of the clergy. Even when they had occa- 
sion to inflict censure upon one of their own number, the hie- 
rarchy never forgot the interests of their order, in respect to 
the other. 18 On the other hand, many rules were prescribed 
regulating the relative rank of the presbyters, deacons and 
subordinate officers ; and the violation of these rules was 
punished with increasing frequency and severity. For proof 
of this, reference may be had to the councils of Elvira, Neo- 
caesarea and Nice. 19 

" They (the bishops) had the means of carrying any mea- 
sure for their own advantage ; and, while they continued 
united, it was not easy for a whole church, even, and much 
more for a single individual of the clergy, or of the laity, to 
oppose them. Even if a whole church came into collision 
with their bishop, they must submit to the decision of the 
provincial synod, of the metropolitan, and also of his fellow- 
bishops. The danger was, that these all, and even the 
churches of the province, would agree in a coalition against 
the party who began the prosecution ; so that, in the end, 

17 Ep. Philagrio, 65. al. 59. p. 823, and Ep. Procopio, 55. al. 42. p. 
814. 

18 Cone. Antioch. c. 1. Synod. Gangr. c. 7, 8. Cone. Chalcedon, 
c. 8. Cone. Const, c. 6. 

19 Comp. Cone. Laodic. c. 20, 42, 56. 



THE METROPOLITAN GOVERNMENT. 293 

they would be excluded from the bonds of Christian fellow- 
ship. Who can suppose that the bishops could be men, and 
not act, in such circumstances, for the interests of their 
order ?"20 

Is it at all easier now for a layman to oppose successfully 
the will of the bishop? Is not his authority as absolute now 
as then, and his will as certainly carried into effect ? Let 
the records of the late convention at New York be consulted 
for a reply. 

(d) Under this system, strong temptations are presented to 
the lower orders of the clergy, to become the sycophants of 
the higher for the promotion of their own interests. 

The inevitable consequence of entrusting the offices of the 
church to the arbitrary control of the bishops, is to surround 
them with a crowd of parasites eager to secure their favor. 

" They flatter the rulers, they affectionately salute the in- 
fluential, they carefully wait upon the rich ; the glory of God 
they disregard ; his worship they defile, religion they profane, 
Christian love they destroy. Their ambition is insatiable ; 
they are ever striving after honor and fame. They aspire to 
be high in office ; and, to accomplish this end, spare not to 
excite the worst of enmities among the best of friends." 21 
This is said by a Roman bishop, of his own clergy ; and Gre- 
gory Nazianzen, at an earlier period, charges them with 
flattering the great and crouching to them in every way. 
" But when they had others in their power, then were they 
more savage than lions. They joined one party or another 
for the slightest reasons, Jike the polypus that can assume any 
color according to circumstances." 22 At another time he 
describes them as " seducing flatterers, flexible as a bough, 

20 Planck, Gesell. Verfass. I. S. 179. Comp. p. 129. Ziegler's 
Versuch. etc. S. 56, 57. 

21 Leo VII. Epist. ad Episc. Bavar. ap. Aventinum et in Catal. 
Test. Vet. p. 209. Cited in Arnold's Wahre Abbildung, S. 919. 

22 Objurgat. in cler. Cited in Wahre Abbildung, S. 918. 

25* 



294 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

savage as a lion to the weak, cringing as a dog to the power- 
ful, who knock at the doors, not of the learned, but of the 
great, and value highest, not what is useful, but what is pleas- 
ing to others." 23 

" Wherever," says Robert Hall, " religion is established by 
law, with splendid emoluments and dignities annexed to its 
profession, the clergy, who are candidates for these distinc- 
tions, will ever be prone to exalt the prerogative, not only in 
order to strengthen the arm on which they lean, but that they 
may the more successfully ingratiate themselves in the favor of 
the prince, by nattering those ambitious views and passions 
which are too readily entertained by persons possessed of 
supreme power. The boasted alliance between church and 
state, on which so many encomiums have been lavished, 
seems to have Been little more than a compact between the 
priest and the magistrate to betray the liberties of mankind, 
both civil and religious. To this the clergy on their part at 
least have continued steady, shunning inquiry, fearful of 
change, blind to the corruptions of government, skilful to dis- 
cern the signs of the times, and eager to improve every oppor- 
tunity, and to employ all their art and eloquence to extend the 
prerogative and smooth the approaches of arbitrary power." 

(e) It is an objectionable feature of this system, that the 
clergy are entrusted with the exercise of both ecclesiastical 
and civil powers. 

Constantine gave to the bishops the right of deciding in 
secular matters, making them the highest court of judicature, 
and ordering that their judgment should be final and decisive 
as that of the emperor himself, 24 whose officers were accord- 
ingly required to execute these decisions. 25 

23 De Episcopis, p. 1031. Ed. Basil. 1571. Ed. Colon. 1590. Vol. 
II. p. 304. 

24 Kqsltoj TTJg xo)V olXXojv dixaoroiv owavsl nagd tov @a<u)Jo)s i£- 
£V£%ftsioav. 

25 Sozomen, Lib. 1. c. 29. Com. Valesius, in Euseb. De Vit. Const. 
c. 27. 



THE METROPOLITAN GOVERNMENT. 295 

To what height the authority of the clergy finally rose in 
the government of the state we need not say. With the un- 
ion of church and state under Constantine, the way was open- 
ed for the exercise of clerical influence in many ways, over 
the secular interests of both. Enough was done to excite in 
the bishops an ambition for worldly power, and scope suffi- 
cient was given for the play of the most dangerous passions. 
The details we must leave the reader to pursue in the histo- 
ries of the church. Siegel has mentioned one crafty device, 
which sufficiently discovers the aspirations of prelatical ambi- 
tion after political power. This was the rule which required 
" the subordinate clergy to obtain permission from the me- 
tropolitan to pay their visits to the emperor." The design 
of this expedient was manifest — to overrule the appeals of 
the inferior clergy to Caesar, by hindering them in their ap- 
proaches to him. In short, the policy of the bishops was to 
embarrass others as much as possible, in making appeal to 
the civil authority, while they themselves employed it to ac- 
complish their own party purposes. " The bishop, for exam- 
ple, has some measure to carry, which he foresees will be op- 
posed by others. He goes, therefore, to the palace and ob- 
tains from the emperor a decree in his own name, formed 
agreeably to the will of the bishops. At another time, a new 
doctrine is to be put forth under the sanction of the whole 
church, as an article of faith. From this others dissent, and 
declare it to be erroneous. The bishop now makes interest 
at the palace, either to have a synod called by authority of 
the emperor to decide the point, or a decree comes direct 
from the court, declaring the article in question orthodox, and 
denouncing all who dissent from it as heretics. More fre- 
quently a presbyter would be a bishop, or a bishop of a small 
and feeble church would be promoted to a higher and richer. 
But seeing that this in the ordinary course of things cannot 
be accomplished, he applies again to the palace, and has the 
address to obtain a recommendation, which has all the form 



296 ' THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

of a command, or else an explicit decree, by virtue of which 
without further trouble, he is advanced to his desired place. 

" Hundreds of cases to this effect occur in the history of 
the fourth and fifth centuries. And all this as any one must 
see, was entirely natural, according to the ordinary course of 
things. When so often availing themselves of this right of ap- 
peal to the emperors as they did, could the bishops fail to re- 
member that they could in this way, not only serve the church, 
but promote also their own convenience, and the furtherance 
of their designs?" 26 

(f) A secular and mercenary spirit now dishonors the 
clergy. 

The history of the times abounds with examples of those 
who neglected or forsook their sacred duties, to engage in se- 
cular pursuits for mercenary purposes. So prevalent was 
this spirit among the clergy, that the council of Eliberis, 
A. D. 305, saw reason to rebuke and restrain it, by requir- 
ing them, if they must engage in trade, to confine their op- 
erations to their own province. 27 

" The church that before by insensible degrees welked 
and impaired, now with large steps went down hill decaying; 
at this time Antichrist began first to put forth his horn, and 
that saying was common, that former times had wooden chal- 
ices and golden priests; but they, golden chalices and wood- 
en priests. ' Formerly,' says Sulpitius, speaking of these 
times, ' martyrdom by glorious death was sought more greedi- 
ly than now bishoprics by vile ambition are hunted after,' and 
in another place, ' they gape after possessions, they tend lands 
and livings, they hoard up their gold, they buy and sell ; and 
if there be any that neither possess money nor traffic, what is 

26 Planck, Gesell. Verfass. I. S. 269—271. Comp. S. 453, 454. 
Cone. Antioch, c. 11, 12. 

27 Cone. Eliberis, c. 4. Comp. Cone. Aurel. 3. c. 27. Basil the 
Great complains that some of the bishops administered ordination for 
hire, — making even this "grace" an article of merchandize. A 
practice which he justly condemns. — Ep. 53. Vol. III. p. 147, 



THE METROPOLITAN GOVERNMENT. 297 

worse, they sit still and accept gifts, and prostitute every en- 
dowment of grace, every holy thing to venal purposes.' Thus 
he concludes ; ' all things went to rack by the faction, wilful- 
ness and avarice of the bishops ; and by this means God's peo- 
ple and every good man was held in scorn and derision.' " 28 

(g) The disposition of the bishops to torture and pervert 
the language of Scripture to give importance to their order, 
is worthy of particular notice. 

Their reference to the Jewish priesthood, and the analo- 
gies which they sought from the Mosaic economy to justify 
their own ecclesiastical polity, have been already mentioned. 
From the same source sprang the conceit of the divine right 
of Episcopacy, of the apostolical succession, and of the va- 
lidity and necessity of Episcopal ordination. On these 
topics another shall speak whose sentiments have been so 
often cited, and who has written on the constitution of the 
church more at length and with greater ability than any 
other historian. After adverting to their reference to the 
Jewish priesthood, to the transfer of the names of that priest- 
hood to the clergy of the Christian church, and to the ana- 
logies which were sought out between the chief priests of 
the temple, and the bishops of the church, Planck proceeds 
to say : " It is easy to see, and was foreseen, what advan- 
tages they might gain if they could once bring this notion into 
circulation — that the bishops and presbyters were set apart not 
by the church, but by God himself;'® — that they held their 
office, and the rights of their office, from God and not from the 
church, — that they were not the servants of the church, but 
ordained of God to be its overseers, and appointed by him to be 
the guardians of its sanctity ,^-that the service of the ministry 
for this new religion must be performed altogether by them, 
and by their body, — and therefore, that they must of neces- 
sity constitute themselves a distinct order, and form a sepa- 

28 Milton's Prose Works, Vol. 1. p. 22. 

29 It was a favorite sentiment of Cyprian, that God makes the 
priests. Deus qui sacerdotes facit. — Epist. 69, 52. 



298 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

rate caste in the church ; — all this was clearly manifest to 
their minds; and, accordingly, they sought out with all dili- 
gence, the analogies from which all these consequences could 
so easily be drawn. 

" In view of the obvious advantages which the bishops 
would gain from the prevalence of such sentiments, one is 
not surprised that Cyprian sought so much to propagate them 
in his day. Having, therefore, so much interest in the pro- 
mulgation of these sentiments, from which proceeded, as a 
necessary consequence, the divine right of their office, the 
bishops found means more fully to establish them by claim- 
ing to be the successors of the apostles. They accordingly 
began now, for the first time, to promulgate, with a specific 
intent, this doctrine of the apostolical succession. The 
bishops had, indeed, from the beginning of the second cen- 
tury, 30 appropriated to themselves the title of the successors 
of the apostles, but it occurred to no one, and least of all to 
them, that they had of right inherited the authority of the 
apostles, and were instated in all their rights. These claims, 
however, were not only put forth before the middle of the 
third century as an acknowledged right, but the bishops care- 
fully availed themselves of the advantages resulting from an 
inheritance of the apostolical succession. 

" One of the advantages claimed was the exclusive right 
of ordination. This favorite doctrine has ever since held a 
conspicuous place among their rights in the church. In- 
deed, it has been the ruling sentiment of the Episcopal hie- 
rarchy, — the foundation of this entire theory of an ecclesias- 
tical ministry. The church were taught to believe that the 

80 This author supposes the distinction between bishop and presby- 
ter to have prevailed from the beginning — a distinction, however, 
appropriately implying no official superiority. " The bishop perhaps 
regarded himself as somewhat different from a presbyter, but not at 
all superior to him. He thought himself more than a presbyter, only 
inasmuch as he had more to do than a presbyter." — Gcsell. Verfass. 
Bd. 1. S. 31. 



THE METROPOLITAN GOVERNMENT. 299 

right in question was borrowed from the ancient Jews ; and 
that the apostles, by means of it, had originally inducted 
bishops and presbyters into office. 31 They were taught that 
the laying on of hands was, not merely a symbolical rite, 
but that it must be regarded as a religious act, having in it- 
self a certain efficacy, by which the individual upon whom 
it had been rightly performed was not only invested with all 
the rights of the office, but was also rendered competent to 
impart to others the same clerical grace. In a word, a mys- 
terious and supernatural power was ascribed to this laying 
on of hands, by which the Holy Spirit was transmitted to the 
person who received ordination from them ; just as the apos- 
tles, by the laying on of their hands, communicated the gift 
of working miracles. Acts 8 : 17. 10 : 47. 

" When once the bishops had cpme to be regarded as the 
successors of the apostles, they could easily lay claim also to 
the prerogatives and gifts of the apostles. Hence the doc- 
trine that none but the bishops could administer a valid or- 
dination ; for they, by being constituted the successors of 
the apostles, had alone the power, by the laying on of the 
hands, to impart a similar gift, with ability to transmit it un- 
impaired to others. In order more deeply to impress the new 
doctrine upon the minds of the people, or to inspire them 
with a firmer belief in it, they took care also to administer 
the right of ordination with the appearance of greater for- 
mality and solemnity. This, in all probability, was the true 
reason for the custom of saying, in the laying on of the 
hands, Accipe Sanctum Spirilum, Receive the Holy Ghost! 

"In the same connection came also the suggestion, that 
it was important, not merely for the bishops, but for the pres- 
byters and deacons also to receive ordination. 32 They were 

31 Potestas Apostolis data est . . . et episcopis, qui eis vicaria or- 
dinatione successerunt. — Cyprian, Ep. 75. 

32 Cyprian at least admonished the deacons to remember that God 
appointed the apostles, i. e., the bishops, but the deacons were con- 



300 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

accordingly ordained. The subordinate orders who had 
lately been instituted in the clergy, received also a kind of 
ordination. For, so far as the people could be impressed 
with a sense of the mysterious influence of this ceremony, 
they would regard him who had received the ordinance as 
another being, no longer on an equality with them; and so 
the great end designed by all these things would be accom- 
plished — that of impressing more deeply vpon the minds of 
the people that the clergy are a peculiar class of persons, set 
apart by God himself as a distinct order in the church." 33 

(h) The clergy manifest an intolerant, persecuting spirit. 

It is the legitimate effect of such pretensions as have been 
specified in the foregoing article. Dissent from their doc- 
trines becomes a denial of God's truth ; disobedience to their 
authority, rebellion against God ; and heresy, the most hein- 
ous of sins. Accordingly, the great strife now is to guard 
against the spread of heretical opinions. He who ventures 
to promulgate them, fails not to draw down upon himself the 
severest penalties that can be inflicted by prelatical power. 
The history of the church, from the fourth century, down- 
ward, is little else than a tedious recital of endless discussions 
of forms of expression and of doctrines, by which the church 
was perpetually agitated, together with a humiliating exhi- 
bition of the bigotry and fiery zeal with which the charge of 
heresy was prosecuted. Many, according to Epiphanius, 
were expelled from the church for a single word or two, which 
might seem to be contrary to the faith. 34 The charges were 

stituted the ministers of the church by the apostles. Apostolos, id 
est episcopos Dominus elegit ; Diaconos autem apostoli sibi constitu- 
erunt ministros. — Ep. 9. 

33 Gesell. Verfass. I. S. 157—163. 

34 Epist. ad Johan. Hieros. Vol. II. Op. p. 314. The least devia- 
tion from the prescribed formularies and creeds of the church was 
heresy, according to the famous law of Arcadius, A. D. 395. Hae- 
ritici sunt qui vel levi argumento a ju icio catholicae religion's et tra- 
mite detecti fuerint deviare, — Cod. Theodos. L. 16. tit. V. de Haeret. 
6,28. 



THE METROPOLITAN GOVERNMENT. 301 

frequently groundless, often contemptible ; and so multifari- 
ous, withal, that it might be difficult to say what in human 
conduct or belief has not been branded as heresy. For a 
priest to appear in worship without his surplice was heresy. 35 
To fast on Saturday, or Sunday, " heresy, and a damnable 
thing." 36 And yet this indefinite, indescribable sin, called 
heresy, was enough, not only to expel one from the church 
but to drive him into exile from his kindred and his country,, 
the victim of relentless intolerance. This zeal for truth was 
quickened, also, by that avarice which seized upon his house, 
his lands, his property of every description, and confiscated 
it for the benefit, ostensibly, of the church, but really, as a 
gratuity to the pious zeal of his clerical persecutors. 37 
When this failed to reach him, the arm and the sword of 
civil justice were invoked against him. Thus was he per- 
secuted, even unto death, by the exterminating zeal of pre- 
latical bigotry. The reader will find in the Codex of Theo- 
dosius enough to verify all, and much more than all, that has 
been said on this subject ; or in the ancient history of So- 
crates, to say nothing of the modern histories of Neander r 
and others. 

And yet, under this treatment, as might have been fore- 
seen, heresies came up into the church like the frogs of 
Egypt. Epiphanius, who, in the fourth century, wrote sev- 
eral books against heresies, announces no less than eighty 
distinct kinds of heresy. But the most obnoxious feature 
of this rage against heresy, is, that it often became only a 
persecuting intolerance of the pious, whose religious life re- 
buked the godless ministry that was over them. " One may 
see," says Jerome, " in most of the cities, bishops and pres- 

35 Apoph. Pat. apud Cotelerium, T. 1. Mon. Graec. p. 684. 

36 Nomo Canon, Gr. apud eundem, c. 129. 

37 Cod. Theodos. L. 16. tit. 5, 6, 43, 52, 57. A full statement of 
these persecutions is given in Vol. VI. p. 118. Leipsic, 1743. So- 
crat. Eccl. Hist. Lib. 7. c. 7. 

26 



302 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

byters, who, when they perceive the laity to seek the society 
of the pious, and hospitably to entertain them, immediately 
become jealous, and murmur against them, lay them under 
bans, and thrust them out of the church ; so that one can do 
no more than what the bishop or overseer does. But to live 
a virtuous life is sure to provoke the displeasure of these 
priests ; so unmerciful are they towards these poor men, and 
seize them by the neck, as if they would draw them away 
from all that is good, and harass them with all manner of 
persecutions." 38 

3. State of religion under the hierarchy. 

The preceding remarks have been made, with reference, 
particularly, to the mutual relations of the clergy and the 
laity under this government, and the practical effects of it 
upon them both. The inquiry now is, in regard to their re- 
ligious character, and the state of morals and religion gen- 
erally in the church. One would gladly pass in silence over 
this view of the subject. We surely have no pleasure in 
contemplating the deformities of the Christian character, in 
any circumstances ; much less in reciting the general de- 
generacy of the church in this age, and the shocking im- 
moralities which so frequently dishonored the lives of all 
classes, both of the clergy and the people. One might al- 
most wish, that, in the lapse of time, a veil, even of deeper 
darkness, had been spread over the church, so that her de- 
formity might be seen no more. But it is seen and known ; 
and it remains for us to pause, not that we may exult over 
the fall of the church, but that we may take warning from 
the example, and guard against a similar catastrophe. 

The great evil of this organization was, that it opened the 
way for the introduction of irreligious men into the ministry, 
and offered many inducements to them to enter into the sacred 
service of the church. It offered to the aspiring the fairest 
prospect of preferment to honor, wealth, and power, both civil 

38 Comment, in Epist. 1 ad Tit. 



THE METROPOLITAN GOVERNMENT. 303 

and ecclesiastical ; and the necessary consequence was a de- 
generate ministry. Planck, with great propriety, remarks: 
" It was a thing of course, that all would strive for admission 
into that order which was in the enjoyment of such wealth, 
and power, and distinction." 39 This was the great evil of 
this whole system of church-government. Mine illi prima 
mali labes, — hence, the source and fountain of that tide of 
corruption which came in upon the church like an over- 
whelming flood. 40 The instances that have already been 
mentioned, clearly indicate the degeneracy of the clergy, 
which appears more fully in the following particulars. 

(a) Their pride; their haughty, supercilious, and ostenta- 
tious bearing. 

Every effort was made to exalt the dignity of the bishops. 
They assumed the titles of priests, high-priests, apostles, suc- 
cessors of the apostles ; their highness, their excellence, their 
worthiness, their reverence, the enthroned, the height of the 
highest dignity, the culminating point of pontifical glory; — 
these were the terms of base adulation employed to set forth 
the dignity of these ministers of Christ. 41 They had separ- 
ate seats and princely thrones in the church. All rose to do 
them reverence as they came in, and stood until the bishops 
were seated, and often the people were required to stand in 
the presence of the bishops. 42 They were decked out in gor- 

39 Gesell. Verfass. 1. 332. 

40 Comp. Mosheim, De Rebus Christ., Saec. III. § 25. 

41 Pertsch, Can. Recht. 49. More at length, in his Kirch. Hist., 
Saec. 11. c. 3. § 15, 16, 18. 

42 The following canon of the council of Maqon, A. D. 581, dicta- 
ted, as they gravely tell us, by the Holy Spirit, is sufficient to illus- 
trate the artifices of this kind to secure the respect of the people: 
£t quia ordinationi sacerdotum annuente deo congruit de omnibus 
disponere et causis singulis honestum terminum dare, ut per hos re- 
verentissimos canones et praeteritorum canonum viror ac florida ger- 
mina maturis fructibus enitescant, statuimus ut si quis saecularium 
quempiam clericorum honoratorum in itinere obviam habuerit, usque 
ad inferiorem gradum honoris veneranter sicut condecet Christianum 






304 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

geous apparel, and even suspended sacred relics from their 
shoulders, to impress the multitude with a more profound 
reverence for their order. 43 " The bishops," says Jerome, 
A. D. 400, " by their pride and their base deeds, are a re- 
proach to their name. In the place of humility they mani- 
fest pride, as though they had acquired honor and not dis- 
grace ; and whenever they perceive one to have gained an in- 
fluence by rightly handling the word of God, they seek, by 
detraction to oppose him. The people of God are dispersed 
by the abounding immoralities and heresies of the day, while 
no good shepherd appears, to lay down his life for the sheep ; 
but they are all hirelings, watching only for gain from the 
flock, and when they see the wolf coming they flee." 44 

(6) Their ignorance, and incompetence rightly to discharge 
the duties of their office. 

The clerical office, and especially that of a bishop became 
an object of covetous desire, for reasons wholly unlike those 
which made it desirable in the eyes of the apostle. The con- 
sequence was, that by favoritism, intrigue and cunning, many 
found their way into office who were wholly unqualified for it ; 
and the church was afflicted with an incompetent and unwor- 
thy ministry. 45 While mere boys, they were sometimes in- 

illi colla subdat, per cujus ofHcia etobsequia fidelissima christianitatis 
jura promeruit. Et si quidera ille saecularis equo vehitur clericusque 
similiter, saecularis galerum de capite auferat et clerico sincerae sal- 
utationis munus adhibeat. Si vero clericus pedes graditur et saecula- 
ris vehitur equo sublimis, illico ad terram defluat et debitum honorem 
praedicto clerico sincerae caritatis exhibeat, ut deus, qui vera caritas 
est, in utrisque laetetur, et dilectioni suae utrumque adsciscat. Qui 
vero haec quae spiritu sancto dictante sancita sunt transgredi voluerit, 
ab ecclesiae quarn in suis ministris dehonorat, quamdiu episcopus i 111— 
us ecclesiae voluerit suspendatur. — C. 15, Bruns, Vol. II. p. 254. The 
gradations of rank which were observed with so much precision, were 
made subservient to the same end, and indicate the same spirit. Comp. 
Planck, I. p. 358—368. 

43 Cone. Bracar. 3. c, 5. 

44 Lib. 2. in Ezech. c. 34. Vol. III. p. 943. 

45 Cone. Tol. 4. c. 19. 



THE METROPOLITAN GOVERNMENT. 305 

vested with the clerical office, so that the fourth council of 
Toletum, A. D. 633, by solemn enactment, provides for their 
education, and training for their duties. 46 " No physician," 
says Gregory Nazianzen, A. D. 370, " finds employment until 
he has acquainted himself with the nature of diseases; nopaint- 
ter, until he has learned to mix colors, and acquired skill in 
the use of the pencil. But a bishop is easily found. No pre- 
paration is requisite for his office. In a single day we make 
one a priest, and exhort him to be wise and learned, while he 
knows nothing; and brings no needful qualification for his 
office, but a desire to be a bishop. 47 They are teachers, while 
yet they have to learn the rudiments of religion. Yesterday, 
impenitent, irreligious ; and to-day, priests; old in vice; in 
knowledge young." 48 "They are, in their ministry, dull; 
in evil speaking, active ; in study, much at leisure ; in se- 
ductions, busy ; in love, cold ; in factions, powerful ; in hatred 
and enmity, constant; in doctrine wavering. They profess 
to govern the church, but have need themselves to be govern- 
ed by others." 49 

(c) The total neglect of Christian discipline, and the gen- 
eral corruption of the church, were the necessary conse- 
quences of a secular ministry. 

In this respect, the state of the church under the metropoli- 
tan government appears in melancholy contrast with its early 
purity. " Formerly, the church of Christ was distinguished 
from the world by her piety. Then, the walk of all, or of 
most Christians was holy, unlike that of the irreligious. But 
now are Christians as base, and, if possible, even worse than 

46 Nos, et divinae legis, et conciliorum praecepti immemores infan- 
tes et pueros, le vitas facimus ante legitimam aetatem ante experien- 
tiam vitae. — Cone. Tol. 4. c. 20. 

47 Orat. 20, De Basil. Ed. Colon. 1590. p. 335. 

48 Orat. 21. In laud. Athanas. p. 378. 

49 Sidonius Apollinaris, A. D. 486, Lib. 7. Ep. 9. Biblioth. Vet. 
Pat. VI. p. 1112. Comp. Mosheim, De Rebus Christ., Saec. III. § 
26. 

26* 



306 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

heretics and heathen." 50 " How unlike themselves are Chris- 
tians now," says Salvianus, A. D. 460. " How fallen from 
what they once were ! when we might rejoice, and account 
the church as quite pure, if it had only as many good as bad 
men in it. But it is hard and sad to say, that the church which 
ought, in all things, to be well pleasing to God, does little 
else than provoke his displeasure." 51 This is but a faint 
sketch of his complaint. Much more to the same effect is 
said by this writer, and confirmed by others, which we glad- 
ly pass in silence. Enough of this sad tale of the degenera- 
cy of the church, of which the half has not been told. " No 
language," says Chrysostom, " can describe the angry con- 
tentions of Christians, and the corruption of morals that pre- 
vailed, from the timeof Constantine to that of Theodosius." 52 
Of grosser enormities we forbear to speak. Much that is 
Tecorded both of the clergy and the people, in the period now 
under consideration, cannot with propriety, be transferred to 
these pages. Suffice it to say, there is evidence sufficient to 
show that a shocking degeneracy of morals pervaded all class- 
es of society. It began, confessedly, with the clergy, — in 
their worldliness and irreligion, their neglect of duty, their 
departure from the faith, and corrupt example. 53 From the 
time of Constantine, the tide of corruption, which had begun 
to set in upon the church, became deep and strong, and 
continued to rise and swell, until it well-nigh overwhelmed 
her. There were still examples, indeed, of men high in office 
in the church, who nobly strove to turn back this flood of in- 
iquity; but they too frequently strove in vain, as their lamen- 
tations over her degeneracy plainly show. Among her pri- 

50 Chrysostom Horn. 49, in Math. Vol. VI. p. 204. Opus imp. Horn, 
in Ps. 61. Vol. I. p. 195. 

51 Lib. 6. De Gub. Dei in Biblioth. Pat. Vet. Vol. VIII. p. 362 seq. 

52 Horn. 49, in Math. p. 202. Opus imperfectum. 

53 Chrysostom expressly says, that they were the cause of this de- 
generacy of the laity. In Math. 23. Comp. also, Catal. Test. Verit. 
p. 77. 



THE METROPOLITAN GOVERNMENT. 307 

vate members, also, there still remained, no doubt, many 
faithful followers of Christ, who have, in heaven, their high 
reward, however history may have failed to record the hon- 
ored memorial of their virtues. 

Wearied, however, with the oppressive hand of prelatical 
power that was upon her, and sickened at the sight of the 
ungodliness which had come up into the church, and sat en- 
throned in her high places, the pure spirit of piety withdrew, 
in silent sadness, to the cloistered cell, drew the curtains, and 
reposed in her secret recesses, through the long night of dark- 
ness that settled upon the world. 

This religious declension, of which we have spoken, it 
should be well considered, could not have come over the 
church so generally through the operation of any one cause 
alone. It is the combined result of various causes. But 
that the ecclesiastical polity that early supplanted the gov- 
ernment originally established by the apostles, was one effi- 
cient cause of this degeneracy, we cannot doubt. It filled 
the church with corrupt and unworthy members, by first giv- 
ing her an ignorant, ambitious priesthood, equally degene- 
rate and corrupt. 

The object of the Christian emperors was to bring all 
their subjects to embrace Christianity. But they totally mis- 
took the means by which this work was to be accomplished. 
They sought to do it by state patronage ; by making a pro- 
fessed faith in Christ the passport to favor and to power. 
To enter into the church of Christ, was, accordingly, to en- 
joy the favor and protection of the government ; to hold her 
offices, was to bear rule in the state. The consequence was, 
that multitudes pressed up to the altar of the Lord, eager to 
be invested with the robes and the office of the Christian 
ministry, who had nothing of its spirit. 54 

Such was the wayward policy, the fatal mistake of the 

54 Comp. Sermon by Thomas Hardy, D. D. Cited in Dr. Brown's 
Law of Christ, pp. 511, 512. 



308 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

first Christian emperors. Such were its disastrous results. 
My kingdom, saith Christ, is not of this world. Christian- 
ity, though mingling freely in the affairs of men, like its 
great Author, works its miracles of mercy and of grace by 
powers that are hidden and divine. It stoops to no carnal 
policy, no state chicanery, no corrupt alliances ; while, like 
an angel of mercy, it goes through the earth, for the healing 
of the nations. To borrow the profound thoughts and beau- 
tiful language of Robert Hall, " Christianity will civilize, it 
is true ; but it is only when it is allowed to develop the ener- 
gies by which it sanctifies. Christianity will inconceivably 
ameliorate the condition of being. Who doubts it ? Its 
universal prevalence, not in name, but in reality, will con- 
vert this world into a semi-paradisaical state; but it is only 
while it is permitted to prepare its inhabitants for a better. 
Let her be urged to forget her celestial origin and destiny, 
— to forget that she came from God, and returns to God ; 
and, whether employed by the artful and enterprising, as the 
instrument of establishing a spiritual empire and dominion 
over mankind, or by the philanthropist, as the means of pro- 
moting their civilization and improvement, — she resents the 
foul indignity, claps her wings and takes her flight, leaving 
nothing but a base and sanctimonious hypocrisy in her 



room. 



"55 



55 Address to Eustace Carey. 



CHAPTER X. 

THE PATRIARCHAL AND THE PAPAL GOVERNMENT. 

I. The patriarchal government. 

This form of the hierarchy we shall dismiss with a very 
brief notice. The principles on which it was based, and its 
characteristics, were essentially the same as those of the 
metropolitan. The state of the church under this organiza- 
tion has of necessity been anticipated in the preceding re- 
marks. It was only a farther concentration of ecclesiastical 
power, another stage in the process of centralization, which 
was fast bringing the church under the absolute despotism 
of the Papacy. Man naturally aspires to the exercise of arbi- 
trary power ; or, if he must divide his authority with others, 
he seeks to make that number as small as possible. This 
disposition had already manifested itself in the church. In 
many of the provinces there were ecclesiastical aspirants 
among the higher orders of the clergy, who, even to the fifth 
century, had not established an undisputed title to the pre- 
rogatives of metropolitans. But the continual effort and 
strife of the bishops for a greater consolidation of ecclesiasti- 
cal power ended in the establishment of an ecclesiastical oli- 
garchy in the fifth century, under the form of the patriarchal 
government. 1 

In the course of the period from the fourth to the sixth cen- 

1 Comp. Planck, Gesell. Verfass. I. S. 598—624. Ziegler's Ver- 
such. etc. S. 164—365. 



310 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

tury, arose four great ecclesiastical divisions, whose primates 
bore the title of Patriarch. These were Rome, Constantino- 
ple, Alexandria and Antioch. Few topics of antiquity have 
been the subject of so much controversy as that relating to the 
patriarchal system, as may be seen in the works of Salmasius, 
Petavius, Sismondi, Scheelstrate, Richter and others. Suf- 
fice it to say, however, that the council of Chalcedon, A. D. 
451, established five patriarchates. The council of Nice, 
A. D. 325, c. 6, 7, of Constantinople I, A. D. 381, c. 2, 5, 
and of Ephesus, A. D. 531, Act. 7, had already conferred 
the distinction without the title. The incumbents of these 
Episcopal Sees were already invested with civil powers. The- 
odosius the Great, conferred upon Constantinople the sec- 
ond rank, a measure greatly displeasing to Rome, and against 
which Alexandria and Antioch uniformly protested. Jeru- 
salem had the honor and dignity of a patriarchate, but not 
the rights and privileges. 2 

The aspirations of prelatical ambition after sole and su- 
preme power are sufficiently manifest in that bitter contest, 
which was so long maintained by the primates of Rome and 
Constantinople, for the title of universal patriarch or head of 
the church universal. 3 Great political events finally decided 
this controversy in the course of the fifth and sixth centuries 
in the West, and in the East in the seventh century in favor 
of the church of Rome. This decision resulted in the supre- 
macy of the Pope and the establishment of the papal system. 

II. The papal government. 

This was the last refinement of cunning and self-aggrandize- 

2 Hence the Romans were accustomed to say, Patriarchae in eccle- 
sia primitus fuere, tres per se et ex natura sua, — Romanus, Alexan- 
drinus et Antiochenus; duo per accidens, Constantinopolitanus et 
Hierosolymitanus. Comp. Justinia. Nov. Constit. 123. Schroeckh, 
Kirch. Gesch. Thl. 17. S. 45, 46. Comp. Art. Patriarch, in the works 
of Augusti, Siegel, Rheinwald, W. Bohmer, etc. 

3 IJatQiaQyog rtjg olxov/itvqg, episcopus oecumenicus, universalis 
ecclesiae papa, etc. 



THE PAPAL GOVERNMENT. 311 

ment ; the culminating point of ecclesiastical usurpation, to- 
wards which the government of the church under the Epis- 
copal hierarchy had been for several centuries approaching. 
It was an ecclesiastical monarchy, a spiritual despotism, 
which completed the overthrow of the authority of individual 
churches as sovereign and independent bodies. 4 

The bishop of Rome was originally indebted, for his au- 
thority and power, to the emperor of the East ; an indebted- 
ness which he continued for some time to feel. The bishop 
of Constantinople, on the other hand, acted with more inde- 
pendence. In some instances, he successfully resisted the 
will of the emperor. But the decline of the Eastern empire 
greatly promoted the ambitious designs of the bishop of Rome 
and the extension of his power in Italy. Meanwhile the ter- 
ritorial government of the Eastern church was greatly reduced 
in the seventh and eighth centuries ; the hopes of Constanti- 
nople and of her patriarch suffered a corresponding reduction. 
Territory after territory fell away and was lost. The dio- 
ceses of Antioch, Jerusalem and Alexandria were overrun 
with Mahomedanism. Thrace became tributary to Bulgaria, 
and Constantinople herself was besieged by the Saracens. 

The bishop of Rome now began his splendid career. It 
commenced with the overthrow of the emperor's authority in 
Italy, and ended in results auspicious to this aspiring prelate 
beyond his most ardent expectation. The incursion of the 
Longobards into Italy favored greatly the designs of the 
Roman bishop ; indeed, without the concurrence of this inva- 
sion, his hopes might never have been realized. The impor- 
tant results of this circumstance to the Pope, the decline of 
the Eastern empire by the dismemberment of different prov- 
inces, and the influence of Gregory and Zacharius in promo- 
ting the papal supremacy by means of the war respecting im- 
age worship and other devices, is very clearly exhibited by 

4 Comp. Planck, Gesell. Verfass. I. S. 624—673. Ziegler's Ver- 
such. etc. S. 365—402. 



312 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

Ziegler. 5 But Gregory III. surpassed all his predecessors in 
his political manoeuvres. After making use of the invasion 
of the Longobards to reduce the power of the emperor, he 
took care to have them removed from the neighborhood of 
Rome, if not from Italy. Their presence had been the 
means of inspiring the people with a belief in the holiness of 
the Pope. The Franks were also deeply impressed with the 
same sentiments. It was accordingly the policy of Gregory 
to throw himself into the arms of the brave Charles M artel, 
that so the secular government of Rome might be removed 
as far as possible from the city. His next political manoeu- 
vre was, by the aid of the Franks, to expel the Longobards 
entirely from Italy. This crafty alliance of the Pope with 
Pepin, proved advantageous only to the designs of the prelate, 
and the chief means of establishing his secular power. 6 

This important point in history distinctly marks the date 
of the establishment of the papal power in Rome, which in 
the middle ages became so vast that all Europe trembled 
before it. 

Thus, as we have seen, ecclesiastical history introduces first 
to our notice, single independent churches ; then, churches 
having several dependent branches ; then, diocesan churches ; 
then, metropolitan or provincial churches; and then, nation- 
al churches attempered to the civil power. In the end, we 
behold two great divisions of ecclesiastical empire, the East- 
ern and the Western, now darkly intriguing, now fearfully 
struggling with each other for the mastery, until at last the 
doctrine of the unity of the church is consummated in the 
sovereignty of the Pope of Rome, who alone sits enthroned 
in power, claiming to be the head of the church on earth. 
The government of the church was at first a democracy, 

5 Versuch. etc. S. 367. 

6 Comp. Ziegler as above. Bowers, Gesch. der Papste, 4v. Thl. 
S. 398 seq. Le Bret, Gesch. von Ital. lv. Thl. S. 36 seq. Especial- 
ly Hiillmann, UrsprQnge der Verfass. in Mittelalter. Ranke's Hist, 
of Popes, B. I.e. 1. § 7. 



THE PAPAL GOVERNMENT. 313 

allowing to all its constituents the most enlarged freedom of 
a voluntary religious association. It became an absolute and 
iron despotism. The gradations of ecclesiastical organiza- 
tion through which it passed, were, from congregational to pa- 
rochial — parochial to diocesan — diocesan to metropolitan 
— metropolitan to patriarchal — patriarchal to papal. 

The corruptions and abominations of the church, through 
that long night of darkness which succeeded the triumph of 
the Pope of Rome, were inexpressibly horrible. The record 
of them may more fitly lie shrouded in a dead language > than 
be disclosed to the light in the living speech of men. The 
successors of St. Peter, as they call themselves, were frequent- 
ly nominated to the chair of" his holiness" by women of in- 
famous and abandoned lives. Not a few of them were shame- 
fully immoral ; and some, monsters of wickedness. Several 
were heretics, and others were deposed as usurpers. And 
yet this church of Rome, " with such ministers, and so ap- 
pointed, — a church corrupt in every part and every particular, 
— individually and collectively, — in doctrine, in discipline, in 
practice," — this church, prelacy recognizes as the only repre- 
sentative of the Lord Jesus Christ, in the period now under 
consideration, invested with all his authority, and exercising 
divine powers on earth ! She boasts her ordinances, her sacra- 
ments, transmitted for a thousand years, unimpaired and un- 
contaminated, through such hands ! High-Church Episcopacy 
proudly draws her own apostolical succession through this pit 
of pollution, and then the followers of Christ, who care not to 
receive such grace from such hands, she calmly delivers over 
to God's " uncovenanted mercies !" Nay more, multitudes of 
that communion are now engaged in the strange work of" un- 
protestantizing the churches" which have washed themselves 
from these defilements. The strife is, with a proud array of 
talents, of learning, and of Episcopal power, to bury all spir- 
itual religion again in the grave of forms, to shroud the light 
of truth in the gloom of popish tradition, and to sink the 
27 



314 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

church of God once more into that abyss of deep and dread- 
ful darkness from which she emerged at the dawn of the re- 
formation. In the beautiful and expressive language of Mil- 
ton, their strife is to " re-involve us in that pitchy cloud of in- 
fernal darkness where we shall never more see the sun of 
truth again, never hope for the cheerful dawn, never more 
hear the bird of morning sing." 



REMARKS. 

In connection with the view which we have taken of the 
rise and progress of the Episcopal system in the ancient 
church, we have a few things to remark upon its present cha- 
racteristics and practical influence. Episcopacy, as it was in 
the beginning, appears to us to have been a lamentable depar- 
ture from that form of government which the churches as- 
sumed originally, under the guidance of the apostles. Epis- 
copacy, as it is now, though modified in various respects, ap- 
pears to us still to retain many of its original characteristics, 
some of which we wish briefly to suggest. 

1. We object to Episcopacy, as a departure from the order 
of the apostolical and primitive churches. 

To our minds, nothing is plainer than that the government 
of the church, in the beginning, was not Episcopal. And, 
though we are not bound, by any divine authority, to an ex- 
act conformity with the primitive model, yet we cannot doubt 
that the apostles were guided by wisdom from above, in giv- 
ing to the churches a different organization, popular in prin- 
ciple, simple in form, and better suited to the exigencies of 
the church in every condition of society. 

While, therefore, with so much gravity and self-compla- 
cency, Episcopacy talks of her " adherence to the Holy 
Scriptures, and to apostolical usage," we must be. permitted 
to object to her whole ecclesiastical polity, as an innovation 









THE PAPAL GOVERNMENT. 315 

upon the scriptural system, and a total departure from the 
usage of the apostles, without any good reason, or beneficial 
results. 

2. We object to Episcopacy, that it had its origin, not in 
divine authority, but in human ambition. 

This is the true source from which it sprang in the an- 
cient church. " First ambition crept in, which at length 
begat Antichrist, set him in the chair, and brought the yoke 
of bondage upon the neck of the church." This, to our 
minds, is a valid objection against Episcopacy. We cannot 
persuade ourselves, that a system, founded in human ambi- 
tion, and reared and matured by human contrivance for sin- 
ister ends, should be suffered to set aside that order which 
God in the beginning gave to the Christian church, through 
the medium of Christ and his apostles. 

3. Episcopacy removes the laity from a just participation 
in the government and discipline of the church. 

The spirit of this system is to concentrate all power in the 
hands of the bishops and clergy ; and there are not wanting 
portentous indications, that this spirit is at work, and this pro- 
cess of centralization still going on in our country. In Eng- 
land it was long since completed. Episcopacy is a govern- 
ment administered for the people, — the great expedient of 
despotism in every form. The government of the primitive 
church was administered by the people, — the great safeguard 
of popular freedom, whether civil or religious. 

Discipline is also ad ministered for the church by the cler- 
gy. But our confidence is in the laity, as the safest and best 
guardians of the purity of the church. We claim for them 
a right to co-operate with the clergy in all measures of disci- 
pline relating to their own body ; and believe it to be both 
their right and their duty to control the censures of the 
church. In transferring this duty from the laity to the cler- 
gy, Episcopacy does great injustice to the private members 
of the church, and equal injury to the cause of pure and un- 
dented religion. 



316 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

4. Episcopacy creates unjust distinctions among the clergy 
whose character and profession is the same. 

The Scriptures authorize no distinction in the duties, 
privileges, or prerogatives of bishops, and priests or presby- 
ters. The distinction is arbitrary and unjust. It denies to 
a portion of the clergy the performance of certain duties for 
which they are duly qualified, and to which they are fully en- 
titled in common with the bishops. It hinders the inferior 
clergy in the performance of their proper ministerial duties, 
and degrades them in the estimation of the people. 

5. We cannot avoid the conviction that Episcopacy gives 
play to the bad passions of men. 

We have seen what mischief it wrought in the ancient 
church, and we see not why the same causes, operating upon 
the heart of man, should not now produce the same results. 
Is not the human heart still open to pride, to ambition, to lust 
for power, and love of supremacy 1 And is there nothing in 
all these Episcopal orders, — deacon, priest, bishop, archbish- 
op, etc. towering one above another, — is there nothing in all 
these to excite the bad passions of men 1 And where so much 
depends upon patronage and Episcopal favor, is there nothing 
to destroy a manly independence of the subordinate ranks ; 
creating in them a cringing sycophancy that moves in subser- 
viency to the prelate? Nothing to excite the discontent, the 
jealousy, or the envy of mortified ambition 1 Instead of all 
this right hand and left hand, this going before, and in com- 
pany, of which Gregory complains, give us rather the simpli- 
city of the gospel order, which knows no such distinctions 
between the ministers of Christ. 

6. We object to the exclusive, intolerant spirit of Epis- 
copacy. 

This, to our minds is one of its most obnoxious character- 
istics. That this single church should assume to be the only 
true church, and its clergy the only authorized ministers ; that 
the only valid ordinances and sacraments are administered in 



THE PAPAL GOVERNMENT. 317 

their communion ; that they alone, of all to whom salvation 
by grace is so freely published, are received into covenant 
mercy, — all this appears to us as nothing else than a proud and 
sanctimonious self-righteousness, which we can only regard 
with unmingled abhorrence. There is an atrocity of char- 
acter in this spirit, which can unchurch the saints of God of 
every age, in every Christian communion, save one, and con- 
sign them, if not to perdition, to God's uncovenanted mercy; 
— in all this there is an atrocity of character, which, in other 
days, has found, as it seems to us, its just expression in the 
fires of Smithfield, and in the slow torture of the auto-da-fe. 
Episcopacy holds no fellowship, no communion with us, — 
dissenters. " The Episcopal church, deriving its Episcopal 
power in regular succession from the holy apostles, through 
the venerable church of England," makes public declaration, 
through its bishops, that it has " no ecclesiastical connection 
with the followers of Luther and Calvin." Be it so. To all 
this we do not care to object. But we have a right to our 
own conclusions respecting a religion characterized by such 
exclusiveness. 

We have already learned, from Planck, the able expounder 
of the constitutional history of the Christian church, the 
origin of these high-church dogmas in the ancient hierarchy. 
A profound expositor of the constitutional history of Eng- 
land has also sketched the origin of these high pretensions 
in the English church. They are of comparatively recent 
origin, dating back only a few years antecedent to the settle- 
ment of the Puritans, in this country. They sprang, also, 
from the same spirit for which high-church Episcopacy has 
ever been so much distinguished, — that is, unmitigated ha- 
tred of the religion of the Puritans. Bancroft, the chaplain 
of archbishop Whitgift first broached these doctrines ; but 
archbishop Laud has the credit of re-affirming and establish- 
ing them. " Laud and his party, began, about the end of 
Elizabeth's reign, by preaching the divine right, as it is call- 
27* 



318 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

ed, or absolute indispensability of Episcopacy ; a doctrine, 
of which the first traces, as I apprehend, are found about the 
end of Elizabeth's reign. They insisted on the necessity of 
Episcopal succession, regularly derived from the apostles. 
They drew an inference from this tenet, that ordinations by 
presbyters were, in all cases, null." Of Lutherans and Cal- 
vinists, they began now to speak, " as aliens, to whom they 
were not at all related, and schismatics, with whom they held 
no communion ; nay, as wanting the very essence of Chris- 
tian society. This again brought them nearer, by irresistible 
consequence, to the disciples of Rome, whom, with becom- 
ing charity, but against the received creed of the Puritans, 
and, perhaps, against their own articles, they all acknow- 
ledged to be a part of the catholic church." 7 

7. Episcopacy is monarchical and anti-republican. 
It is monarchical in form, monarchical in spirit, and, until 
transplanted to these states, has been, always and every- 
where, the handmaid of monarchy. And here it is a mere 
exotic, which is altogether uncongenial with our own repub- 
lican soil- Its monarchical tendencies and sympathies are 
clearly exhibited by Hallam, a historian of extensive, and 
profound erudition, whose work on the Constitutional His- 
tory of England, Macaulay characterizes as " the most im- 
partial book that he ever read." " The doctrine of passive 
obedience, Episcopacy taught in the reign of Elizabeth, even 
in her homilies. To withstand the Catholics, the reliance of 
Parliament was upon the ' stern, intrepid, and uncomprom- 
ising spirit of Puritanism.' Of the conforming churchmen, 
in general, they might well be doubtful." 8 

The doctrine of the king's absolute authority was incul- 
cated by the Episcopal clergy. " Especially with the high- 
church party it had become current." 9 

Under Charles I, " they studiously inculcated, that resis- 

7 Hallam's Constitutional History, Vol. 1. pp. 540, 541. 

8 Ibid. pp. 262, 263. 9 Ibid. pp. 437, 438. 



THE PAPAL GOVERNMENT. 319 

tance to the commands of rulers was, in every conceivable 
instance, a heinous sin. It was taught in their homilies." 10 
" It was laid down in the canons of convocation, 1606." 11 

Sibthorp and Mainwaring, " eager for preferment, which 
they knew the readiest method to obtain, taught that the king 
might take the subject's money at pleasure, and that no one 
might refuse his demand, on penalty of damnation." And 
for such true and loyal sentiments, Mainwaring was honored 
with a bishopric by Charles, and Sibthorp with an inferior 
dignity. 

James considered Episcopacy essential to the existence of 
monarchy, uniformly embodying this sentiment in his favor- 
ite aphorism, " No bishop, no king." 12 

Elizabeth and her successors, says Macaulay, " by consid- 
ering conformity and loyalty as identical, at length made them 
so." 

" Charles himself says in his letters, that he looks on Epis- 
copacy as a stronger support of monarchical power than even 
an army. From causes which we have already considered, 
the Established Church had been, since the Reformation, the 
great bulwark of the prerogative." 13 She was, according to 
the same eloquent writer, for more than one hundred and fif- 
ty years, " the servile handmaid of monarchy, the steady en- 
emy of public liberty. The divine right of kings, and the 
duty of passively obeying all their commands, were her favor- 
ite tenets. She held them firmly, through times of oppres- 
sion, persecution, and licentiousness; while law was trampled 
down; while judgment was perverted; while the people were 
eaten, as though they were bread." 14 

Great objection was made to the introduction of Episcopa- 
cy into this country, on account of its monarchical principles 

10 Hallara's Const. Hist. Vol. 1. p. 264. » Ibid. pp. 567—570. 

12 Neal's History of the Puritans, Vol. II. pp. 43, 44. 

13 Macaulay 's Miscellanies, Vol. I. p. 293. Boston ed. 

14 Ibid. p. 249. 



320 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

and tendencies, so entirely adverse to the popular spirit of 
our government and our religion. It was received, at last, 
only on its making large concessions to the spirit of our free 
institutions. In the revolutionary struggle, great numbers 
of that denomination, and a larger proportion of their clergy, 
remained the fast adherents to the British crown. Indeed, the 
monarchical spirit of Episcopacy, and its uncongeniality with 
our free institutions, is too obvious to need illustration. 15 

Our fathers came here to establish " a state without king, 
or nobles, and a church without a bishop." They sought to 
establish themselves here, as " a people governed by laws of 
their own making, and by rulers of their own choosing." 
And here, in peaceful seclusion from the oppression of every 
dynasty, whether spiritual or temporal, they became an inde- 
pendent and prosperous commonwealth. But what affinity, 
what sympathy has its government, civil or religious, with that 
of Episcopacy ? the one, republican ; the other, monarchical ; 
in sympathy, in principle, in form, they are directly opposed 
to each other. We doubt not that most of the members of 
that communion are friends to our republican government; 
but we must regard their religion as a strange, unseemly an- 
omaly here ; — a religious government, arbitrary and despotic, 
in the midst of the highest political freedom; a spiritual des- 
potism, in the heart of a free republic ! 

15 See an extract from Chandler's Appeal on behalf of the church 
of England in America. N. Y., 1767, cited in Smyth's Eccl. Repub- 
licanism, which concedes fully the monarchical spirit of Episcopacy. 



CHAPTER XI. 

PRAYERS OF THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

The religious worship of the primitive Christians was con- 
ducted in the same simplicity and freedom which character- 
ized all their ecclesiastical polity. They came together for 
the vvorship of God, in the confidence of mutual love, and 
prayed, and sung, and spoke in the fulness of their hearts. 
A liturgy and a prescribed form of prayer were alike un- 
known, and inconsistent with the spirit of their worship. 

In the following chapter, it will be my object to establish 
the following propositions. 

I. That the use of forms of prayer is opposed to the 
spirit of the Christian dispensation. 

II. That it is opposed to the example of Christ and of his 
apostles. 

III. That it is unauthorized by the instructions of Christ 
and the apostles. 

IV. That it is contrary to the simplicity and freedom of 
primitive worship. 

V. That it was unknown in the primitive church. 

I. The use of forms of prayer is opposed to the spirit of 
the Christian dispensation. 

" The truth," says Christ, " shall make you free." One 
part of this freedom was exemption from the burdensome 
rites and formalities of the Jewish religion, " The Lord's 



322 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

free man " was no longer bound to wear that yoke of bondage ; 
but, according to the perfect law of liberty, James 1: 25. 2: 
12, was required only to worship God, in spirit and in truth. 
Paul often reproved Peter, and others for their needless sub- 
jection to the bondage of the Jewish ritual, which imposed 
unauthorized burdens upon Christians. Gal. 2: 4 seq. 3: 1 
seq. 4: 9 seq. Rom. 10: 4 seq. 14: 5, 6. Col. 2: 16—20. 
Such was the perfect law of liberty which the religion of 
Christ gave to his followers. It imposed upon them no cum- 
bersome rites; it required no prescribed forms, with the ex- 
ception of the simple ordinances of baptism and the Lord's 
supper. It required only the homage of the heart ; the wor- 
shipping of God in sincerity and in truth. So taught our Sa- 
viour and his apostles. 

Indications of irregularity and disorder are, indeed, appa- 
rent in some of the churches whom Paul addresses ; particu- 
larly among the Corinthians. 1 Cor. 14: 1 seq. These ir- 
regularities, however, he severely rebukes, assuring them 
that God is not the author of confusion, but of peace, v. 33 ; 
i. e., of harmony in sentiment, and in action, as appears from 
the context. He ends his rebuke by exhorting them to let 
all things be done decently, and in order ; declaring at the 
same time, that the things which he writes on this subject, 
are the commandments of God. v. 37. He commends the 
Colossians, on the other hand, for the good order and propri- 
ety which they observed ; "joying and beholding their order, 
and the steadfastness of their faith." Col. 2: 5. 

The freedom of the gospel was not licentiousness. It gave 
no countenance to disorder and confusion, in the assemblies 
of the primitive Christians, convened for the worship of God. 
But it required them to worship him in spirit and in truth ; 
in a confiding, filial, and affectionate spirit. This is that 
spirit of adoption which was given them, and which, instead 
of the timid, cowering spirit of a slave, taught them to come 
with holy boldness to the throne of grace ; and in the trust- 



THE PAPAL GOVERNMENT. 323 

ful confidence of a child, to say " Our Father which art in 
heaven." 

We will not, indeed, assert that the spirit of prayer is in- 
compatible with the use of a prescribed form ; but we must 
feel that the warm and gushing emotions of a pious heart flow 
not forth in one unvaried channel. Who, in his favored mo- 
ments of rapt communion, when with unusual fervor of devo- 
tion, he draws near to God, and leaning on the bosom of the 
Father, with all the simplicity of a little child, seeks to give 
utterance to the prayer of his heart, — who under such cir- 
cumstances, could breathe to heaven his warm desires through 
the cold formalities of a prayer-book ? When praying in the 
Holy Ghost, the Spirit itself helping our infirmities, and mak- 
ing intercession for us with groanings that cannot be uttered, 
must we, can we, employ any prescribed form of words to ex- 
press these unutterable things. 1 " Prayer by book," says bish- 
op Wilkins in his Gift of Prayer, " is commonly of itself some- 
thing^^ and dead; floating for the most part in generalities, 
and not particular enough for each several occasion. There 
is not that life and vigor in it to engage the affections, as when 
it proceedeth immediately from the soul itself, and is the nat- 
ural expression of those particulars whereof we are most sen- 
sible. It is not easy to express what a vast difference a man 
may find in respect to inward comfort and satisfaction, be- 
tween those private prayers that are rendered from the affec- 
tions, and those prescribed forms that we say by rote or read 
out of a book." Such a form if not incompatible with such 
aids of the Spirit, and such promises of his word, must at 
least be opposed to them. So prayed not our Lord. Such 
were not the prayers of his disciples. This proposition in- 
troduces our second topic of remark. 

II. The use of forms of prayer is opposed to the example 
of Christ and the apostles. 

1 Comp. Bishop Hall, in Porter's Homiletics, p, 294. 



324 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

Several of our Lord's prayers are left on record, all of 
which plainly arose out of the occasion on which they were 
offered, and were strictly extemporaneous. So far as his ex- 
ample may be said to bear upon the subject, it is against the 
use of forms of prayer. 

The prayers of the apostles were likewise occasional and 
extemporaneous. Such was the prayer of the disciples at the 
election of Matthias, Acts I: 24 ; of the church at the re- 
lease of Peter and John, 4: 24 — 31 ; of Peter at the raising 
to life of Tabitha, 9: 40 ; of the church for the release of 
Peter under the persecution of Herod ; and of Paul at his 
final interview with the elders of Ephesus, 20: 36; he kneel- 
ed down upon the beach, and prayed as the struggling emo- 
tions of his heart allowed him utterance. 

It is particularly worthy of remark, that in all the exam- 
ples of prayer in the New Testament, several of which are 
recorded apparently entire, there is no similarity of form, 
or of expression ; nor any repetition of a form, with the 
single exception of the response, Amen, Peace be with you, 
etc. Even our Lord's prayer is never repeated on such oc- 
casions ; nor is there, in all the New Testament, the slight- 
est indications of its use either by the apostles, or by the 
churches which they established. 

The apostles, then, prayed extemporaneously. Their ex- 
ample is in favor of this mode of offering unto God the de- 
sires of our soul. Paul often requests the prayers of the 
churches to whom he writes, in regard to particulars so va- 
rious, and so minute, as to forbid the supposition that they 
could have been expressed in a liturgy. The same may be 
said in regard to his exhortations to prayer, some of which, 
at least, are generally admitted to have relation particularly 
to public prayer, 1 Tim. 2: I seq. Who, on reading these 
various exhortations, without any previous opinions or par- 
tialities, would ever have been directed by all that the apos- 
tle has written, to the use of any form of prayer ? 



PRAYERS OF THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 325 

Our Lord's prayer, itself, is recorded with variations so 
great, as to forbid the supposition that it was designed to be 
used as a prescribed form ; as the reader must see by a com- 
parison of the parallel passages in the margin. 2 

So great is the variation in these two forms, that many 
have supposed they ought to be regarded as two distinct 
prayers, Such was the opinion of Origen. He notices the 
different occasions on which the two prayers were offered, and 
concludes that the resemblance is only such as might be ex- 
pected from the nature of the subject. 3 

III. The use of forms of prayer is unauthorized by the in- 
structions of Christ and the apostles. 

If any instructions to this effect were given by Christ, they 

2 In Matt. 6 : 9—13. In Luke 11 : 2—4. 

IlATEP tm&v o iv xolg ov- IUlTEP, 

gavoTg ' uyiaa&ijxw to ovofxa ayiaa^xw to ovofia aov ' 
aov. iX&h(o y ^aaiXsla aov. 

JEX&sxo) f\ fiacriXeltx aov ' yz- 
vrfor\xw to -&sXt]fid aov, wg iv 
ovoavw, xal inl xi)g yr\q. 

Tov agxov rjfiwv xov imov- Tov agxov rj^iojv xov iniov- 

atov dog ijfilp ai^usgov. atov dldov fjf/iv to xatf r^iigav. 

Kal aq>eg i]fuv xa oq>nli][ia- Kal cxcpsg ^fxlv rag a^iagxlag 

xct fjfAOJV, wg v.aX rtfiug aqplejxsv t}(xcav ' xal yag avxol acpUfisv 
xolg ocpuXixatg t]fiojv. navxl ocpukovxi, yfuv 

Kal (Ai) slasviyxrjg t]^iag ug xal (xr\ ttasvsyxtjg q^ag slg 
nuqaa^iov, aXXa gvaav r^otg neigaafiov. 
onto xov 7iovr\gov. t 

The doxology is generally supposed to be spurious ; but without 
noticing the omission of this in Luke, the prayers are as various as 
they might be expected to be, if delivered extemporaneously on two 
different occasions, without any intention of offering either as a pre- 
scribed form of prayer. 

3 BsXriov y Siacpogovg vofxiCeodai rag irgoasvyag xoivd riva iyovoqg 
fttQrj. Hsgl tvy/ig. — Vol. I. p. 227. 

28 



326 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

were in connection with the prayer which he taught his dis- 
ciples. We have, therefore, to examine somewhat in detail, 
the nature and design of the Lord's prayer. The views of 
the learned respecting the nature of our Lord's prayer, and 
the ends designed by it, are arranged by Augusti under three 
several classes : 

1. Those who maintain that Christ offered no prescribed 
form of prayer, either for his immediate disciples, or for believ- 
ers in any age; but that he gave this as an example of the 
filial and reverential spirit in which we should offer our 
prayers to God, and of the simplicity and brevity which ought 
to characterize our supplications, in opposition to the vain re- 
petitions of the heathen, and the ostentatious formalities of 
the Pharisees. It is worthy of remark, that this was origi- 
nally given immediately after rebuking such hypocritical de- 
votions. Augustine, A. D. 400, expressly declares, that Christ 
did not teach his disciples what icords they should use in 
prayer; but what things they should pray for , when engaged 
in silent, mental prayer. 4 

2. Those who contend that it is a specific and invariable 
form, to be used by Christians in all ages, like the baptismal 
formula in Matt. 28 : 19, 20 ; though not to the exclusion 
of other forms of prayer. 

3. Others incline to the opinion, that the prayer is an epi- 
tome of the Jewish forms of prayer which were then in use ; 
and that it comprised, in its several parts, the very words 
with which their prayers began, and which were embodied in 
one, as a substitute for so many long and unmeaning forms of 
prayer. 

Whatever be the true view of this subject, it is remarkable 
that our Lord's prayer was not in use in the age of the apos- 
tles. Not the remotest allusion to it occurs in the history of 

4 Non enim verba, sed res ipsas eos verbis docuit, quibus et seipsi 
commonefacerent a quo, et quid esset orandum cum in penetralibus, 
ut dictum, est mentis orarent. — De Magistro, c. 2. Vol. I. p. 402. 



PRAYERS OF THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 327 

the acts of the apostles, nor in their epistles. It is true, in- 
deed, that the canon of the New Testament was not then es- 
tablished, nor their writings extensively known ; but we 
must suppose that tradition would, at least in some degree, 
have supplied the place of the gospels. The supposition, 
that, in all cases of prayer by the disciples and early Chris- 
tians, the use of this form must be presumed, like that of the 
baptismal formula, is altogether gratuitous and groundless. 

In the apostolical fathers, also, no trace is found of this 
prayer. Neither Clement, nor Polycarp, nor any father, 
makes allusion to it, antecedent to Justin Martyr, A. D. 148. 
And he informs us that in Christian assemblies, the presiding 
minister offered up prayer and thanksgiving, as he ivas able, 
oar] dvvafiig dvto), and that thereupon the people answered 
Amen ! This expression, as we shall endeavor to show in 
another place, means, — as well as he could, or to the best of 
his ability. It shows that public prayers were not confined 
to any pre-composed forms. The Lord's prayer may have 
been used in connection with these extemporary addresses of 
the minister ; but there is no evidence of such a usage. In 
describing the ceremony of baptism, Justin speaks of the use 
which is made of "the name of the universal father," to tov 
TlatQog tojv Slow, which is supposed by some to be an allu- 
sion to the expression, " our Father which art in heaven." 

Lucian, A. D. 180, in his Philopatris, speaks of the pray- 
er which begins with the Father, iv%rj anb IlaTQog aQ^dfxs- 
vog, which may possibly be a similar allusion to our Lord's 
prayer. 

Nothing much more explicit occurs in Irenaeus. He 
says, however, " Christ has taught us to say in prayer, 
1 And forgive us our debts ;' for he is our Father, whose debt- 
ors we are, having transgressed his precepts." 5 This pas- 
sage only shows his acquaintance with the prayer, but proves 
nothing in relation to the liturgical use of it. The same 

5 Adv. Haeres. Lib. 5. c. 17. 



328 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

may be said of Clement of Alexandria, who makes evident 
allusion to the Lord's prayer in several passages. 6 

The Apostolical Constitutions belong to a later age, and 
cannot, therefore, be introduced as evidence in the question 
under consideration. 

Tertullian, at the close of the second century and begin- 
ning of the third, together with Origen, and Cyprian, who 
lived a few years later, give more authentic notices of the 
Lord's prayer. 

Tertullian not only quotes the Lord's prayer in various 
parts of his writings, but he has left a treatise " On Prayer," 
which consists of an exposition of it, with some remarks ap- 
pended, concerning the customs observed in prayer. In this 
treatise, which he is supposed to have written, before he 
went over to Montanism, t. e., before the year 209, Tertul- 
lian represents this prayer, not merely as an exemplar, or 
pattern of Christian petitions, but as the quintescence and 
ground of all prayer; and as a summary of the gospel. 7 He 
strongly recommends, however, other prayers, and enumer- 
ates the several parts of prayer, such as supplication, entreaty, 
confession of sin, and then proceeds to show that we may 
offer other petitions, according to our accidental circum- 
stances and desires, having premised this legitimate and or- 
dinary prayer which is the foundation of all. 8 

Cyprian, who died A. D. 258, repeats the sentiments of 
Tertullian, whom he recognizes, to a great extent, as his 
guide in all points of doctrine. He wrote a treatise on the 
Lord's prayer, on nearly the same plan as that of Tertullian. 

6 Especially Paedag. Lib. 3. 

7 De Oratione, c. 1. pp. 129, 130. 

8 Quoniam tamen Dominus, prospector humanarum necessitatum, 
seorsum post traditam orandi disciplinam, " petite," inquit " et acci- 
pietis ;" et sunt, quae petantur pro circumstantia cujusque, praemissa 
legitima et or dinaria, oratione quasi fundamento ; accidentium jus est 
desideriorum jus est swperstruendi eztrinsecus petitiones. — De Orat. 
c 9. 



PRAYERS OF THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 329 

He has less spirit, but is more full than his predecessor ; and 
often explains his obscurities. Cyprian says, that our Lord 
among other important precepts and instructions, gave us a 
form of prayer, and taught us for what we should pray. He 
also styles the prayer, our public and common prayer ; 9 and 
urges the use of it by considerations drawn from the nature of 
prayer, without asserting its liturgical authority or established 
use. 

Origen, contemporary with Cyprian, has a treatise on 
prayer, in the latter part of which, he comments at length 
upon the Lord's prayer. His remarks are extremely discur- 
sive, and chiefly of a moral and practical character ; so that 
we derive no satisfactory information from him respecting 
the liturgical use of this prayer, or of these prayers rather 
as he regards them. He, however, warns his readers against 
vain repetitions and improper requests, charging them not to 
battologize in their prayers ; — an error which they could have 
been in no danger of committing, had they been guided by 
the dictation of a prayer-book. The explanation which he 
gives implies the use of extemporaneous prayer. 10 

It appears from the foregoing authorities, that our Lord's 
prayer was never regularly used by the apostles themselves, 
nor by the churches which they founded, until the close of 
the second century and beginning of the third. From this 
time it began to be used, and in the fifth and sixth centuries 
was a part of the public liturgies of the church. 

With reference to the Lord's prayer we subjoin the fol- 
lowing remarks. 

1 . It is questionable whether the words of this prayer were 
indited by our Lord himself. If we adopt the theory of many 
that it is a compend of the customary prayers in the religious 

9 Inter cetera sua salutaria raonita et praecepta divina, . . . etiam 
orandi ipse formam dedit, . . . publica est nobis et communis oration — 
De Oratione, pp. 204—206. 

10 DeOratione, c.21. p. 230. 

28* 



330 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

service of the Jews, how can it with propriety be affirmed 
that our Lord gave to his disciples any form of prayer what- 
ever as his own ? 

2. This appears not to have been given to the disciples as 
■a form of public prayer ; but as a specimen of that spiritual- 
ity and simplicity, which should appear in their devotions, 
in opposition to the " vain repetitions of the heathen," and 
the heartless formalities of the Pharisees. It merely en- 
forces a holy importunity, sincerity and simplicity in private 
prayer. It was a prayer to be offered in secret, as the con- 
text in both instances indicates, Matt. 6 : 3 — 14. Luke 11 : 
1—13. 

3. Our Lord expressly enjoined upon his disciples to offer 
other petitions, of the highest importance, for which no form 
is given. The gifts of the Holy Spirit are offered to those 
who shall ask, while yet no prescribed formula is given, in 
which to make known our requests for this blessing. Why 
have we not, therefore, the same authority, even from Christ 
himself, for extemporaneous as for precomposed prayer 1 At 
least we must presume that our Lord had no intention of pre- 
scribing an exact model of prayer, while at the same time 
he taught us to pray, without any form, for the highest bless- 
ing which we can receive. 

4. A strict adherence to this form is incompatible with a 
suitable recognition of Christ as our mediator and interces- 
sor with the Father. " Hitherto," said our Lord in his last 
interview with his disciples before he suffered, " ye have 
asked nothing in my name." But a new and peculiar dis- 
pensation was opening to them, by which they might have 
" boldness to enter into the holiest by the blood of Jesus." 
The petitions of that prayer might, indeed, be suitable to the 
Christian in every age, and in all stages of his spiritual pro- 
gress ; but they are appropriate rather, to those under the 
law, than to those under grace. They breathe not the pecu- 
liar spirit of him who would plead the name of Christ alone, 
in suing for pardon and acceptance with God. 



PRAYERS OF THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 331 

5. This prayer belongs rather to the economy of the Old 
than to that of the New Testament. Christ was not yet 
glorified. The Spirit was not given ; neither was the law of 
ordinances abolished. However useful or important it may 
have been, in the worship of God under the Old Testament, 
is it of necessity imposed upon us under that better covenant 
which God has given ; and by which he gives us nearness of 
access to his throne, without any of the formalities of the 
ancient Jewish ritual, only requiring us to worship him in 
spirit and in truth 1 

6. The variations of phraseology in the forms given by the 
evangelists, are so great as to forbid the supposition that it is 
to be regarded as a specific and prescribed form of prayer. 
The reader has only to notice the two forms of Matthew 
and Luke, to see that the variations are too numerous and 
important to justify an adherence to one invariable form of 
speech. The only form of prayer that can be found in the 
Scriptures, is recorded on two occasions, with such variations 
as to exclude the possibility of deriving from either any au- 
thorized and unchangeable form. They have that general 
resemblance, united with circumstantial variations, which 
might be expected in the prayers of one who was careful on- 
ly to utter the same sentiments without any studied phraseol- 
ogy or set form of words. They are as various as two ex- 
temporaneous prayers might be expected to be, if uttered up- 
on two similar occasions with reference to the same subject. 11 

IV. The use of forms of prayer is not congenial with the 
simplicity and freedom of primitive worship. 

All the early records of antiquity relating to the ecclesias- 
tical polity of the primitive Christians, and to their rights of 
religious worship, concur in the representation, that they were 
conducted with the utmost simplicity; and in total contrast, 

11 On this whole subject, Comp. Augusti, Denkwtirdigkeiten, Vol. 
V. S. 88—134. 



332 - THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

both with the formalities of the ancient Mosaic ritual, and with 
the various forms of Episcopal worship and government, which 
were subsequently introduced. 12 The men of those days all 
accounted themselves the priests of God; and each, accord- 
ing to his ability, claimed the liberty, not only to teach and 
to exhort, but even to administer the ordinances. All this is 
explicitly asserted in the commentary upon Eph. 4: 11, 
which is ascribed to Hilary of Rome, about A. D. 360. " Af- 
ter churches were everywhere established, and ecclesiastical 
orders settled, the policy pursued was different from that which 
at first prevailed. For, at first, all were accustomed to teach 
and to baptize, each on every day alike, as he had occasion. 
Philip sought no particular day or occasion in which to bap- 
tize the eunuch, neither did he interpose any season of fast- 
ing. Neither did Paul and Silas delay the baptism of the 
jailor and all his house. Peter had the assistance of no dea- 
cons, nor did he seek for any particular day, in which to bap- 
tize Cornelius and his household. He did not even adminis- 
ter the baptism himself, but entrusted this duty to the breth- 
ren, who had come with him from Joppa ; as yet there were 
no deacons, save the seven who had been appointed. That 
the disciples might increase and multiply, all, in the begin- 
ning, were permitted to preach, to baptize, and to expound 
the Scriptures. But when Christianity became widely ex- 
tended, small assemblies were formed, and rectors and presi- 
dents were appointed ; and other offices were instituted in the 
church. No one presumed without ordination to assume the 
office of the clergy. The writings of the apostles do not, in 
all respects, accord with the existing state of things in the 
church ; because these things were written at the tunc of the 
first organization of the church." 13 

This passage asserts the free and unrestrained liberty which 

12 Comp. Schoene, Geschichtsforschungen, I. S. 91 — 132. 

13 Comment, ad Eph. 4: 11. Ambros. Opera, Vol. III. 



PRAYERS OF THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 333 

all, at first, enjoyed in instructing and exhorting ; and in ad- 
ministering the ordinances and the government of the church. 
There is a passage in Tertullian, also, indicative of the same 
absence of prescribed form and regularity. " After the read- 
ing of the Scriptures, psalms are sung, or addresses are 
made, or prayers are offered. " 14 All is unsettled. The ex- 
ercises are freely varied, according to circumstances. This 
absence of all established forms, and the universal enjoyment 
of religious liberty and equality, was, indeed, sometimes mis- 
understood and abused, as we have seen, even by the church- 
es to whom the apostle writes ; and yet it was far from offer- 
ing any encouragement to the disorders and extravagances of 
fanaticism. Observe, for example, the following upbraidings 
of such irregularities by Tertullian : "I must not fail to de- 
scribe, in this place, the religious deportment of these here- 
tics ; how unseemly, how earthly, how carnal ; without grav- 
ity, without respect, without discipline; — how inconsistent 
with their religious belief. Especially, it is wholly uncertain 
who may be a catechumen ; who a Christian professor. They 
all assemble and sit promiscuously as hearers ; and pray in- 
discriminately. How impudent are the women of these her- 
etics, who presume to teach, to dispute, to exorcise, to prac- 
tise magic arts upon the sick ; and, perhaps even to baptize. 
Their elections to offices in the church are hasty, inconside- 
rate, and irregular. At one time they elect neophytes ; at 
another, men of the world ; and then apostates from us, that 
they may, at least, gain such by honor, if not by the truth. No- 
where is promotion easier than in the camps of rebels, where 
one's presence is a sure passport to preferment. According- 
ly, one is bishop, to-day ; to-morrow, another ; to-day, a dea- 
con ; to-morrow, a reader ; and he who is now a presbyter, 
to-morrow, will be again a layman." 15 

14 Jam vero prout Scripturae leguntur, aut psalmi canuntur, aut 
adlocutiones proferuntur, aut petitiones delegantur. — De Anima, c. 9. 

15 De Praescriptionibus Haeret. c. 41. 



334 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

In relation to this passage, which Neander quotes at length, 
he offers the following remarks ; and we commend them to 
the attentive consideration of the reader. " We here see the 
operations of two conflicting parties, one of which regards 
the original organization of the apostolical churches, as a di- 
vine institution, and an abiding ordinance in the church, es- 
sential to the spread of a pure Christianity. The other, which 
contends for an unrestrained freedom in all external matters, 
opposes these views, as foreign to the freedom and simplicity 
which the spirit of the gospel encourages. It denies that 
the kingdom of God, itself inward, unseen, can need any out- 
ward organization for the support and spread of that kingdom. 
It contends that all Christians belong to the priesthood ; 
and this it would practically exemplify, by allowing no es- 
tablished distinction between the clergy and the laity ; but 
permitting all, in common, to teach, and to administer the 
sacraments ; — two parties, which we often see opposed to each 
other, in the subsequent history of the church. One of them 
lays great stress upon the outward organization of the visible 
church, by not suitably distinguishing between what may be 
a divine institution and what a human ordinance ; the other, 
holds the doctrine of an invisible kingdom ; but overlooking 
the necessities of weak minds, which are incapable of form- 
ing conceptions of objects so spiritual, rejects with abhorrence 
all such ordinances." 16 

V. The use of forms of prayer was unknown in the primi- 
tive church. 

The apostolical fathers, Clement and Polycarp, give us no 
information concerning their modes of worship in the age im- 
mediately succeeding that of the apostles. The circum- 
stances of their meeting in secresy, and under cover of the 
latest hours of the night, together with other inconveniences, 
must, it should seem, be very unfavorable to the use of a liturgy, 

16 Antagonisticus, pp. 340, 341. 1825. 



PRAYERS OF THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 335 

or any form of prayer. Tertullian and Eusebius represent the 
primitive Christians, of whom Pliny speaks, to have come to- 
gether, ad cancndum Christo, to sing praise to Christ. 

We are left, then, to the conclusion, that the apostolical 
churches neither used any forms of prayer, nor is such use 
authorized by divine authority. In this conclusion we are 
sustained by various considerations, drawn from the foregoing 
views of the simplicity of primitive worship. 

1. The supposition of a form of prayer is opposed to that 
simplicity, freedom of speech, and absence of all formalities, 
which characterized the worship of these early Christians. 

In nothing, perhaps, was the worship of the Christian reli- 
gion more strikingly opposed to that of the Jewish, than in 
these particulars. The one was encumbered with a burden- 
some ritual, and celebrated, with many imposing formalities, 
by a priesthood divinely constituted, whose rank, and grades 
of office, and duties, were denned with great minuteness, and 
observed with cautious precision. The other prescribed no 
ritual ; designated no unchanging order of the priesthood ; 
but, simply directing that all things should be done decently 
and in order, permitted all to join in the worship of God, with 
unrestrained freedom, simplicity, and singleness of heart. 
The one, requires the worshipper to come with awful rever- 
ence ; and, standing afar off, to present his offering to the 
appointed priest, who, alone, is permitted to bring it near to 
God. The other, invites the humble worshipper to draw near 
in the full assurance of faith ; and leaning on the bosom of 
the Father with the confiding spirit of a little child, to utter 
his whole heart in the ear of parental love and tenderness. 
Is it not contrary, then, to the economy of this gracious dis- 
pensation, to trammel the spirit of this little child with a stu- 
died form of speech ; to chill the fervor of his soul by the cold 
dictations of another ; and require him to give utterance to 
the struorcrlinDr emotions of his heart, in language, to him, un- 
congenial 1 Does it comport with the genius of primitive 



336 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

Christianity, to lay upon the suppliant, in audience with his 
Father in heaven, the restraints of courtly formalities and the 
studied proprieties of premeditated prayer? The artlessness 
and simplicity of primitive worship afford a strong presumption 
in favor of free, extemporaneous prayer. 

% This presumption is strengthened by the example of 
Christ and his apostles, all of whose prayers, so far as they 
are recorded, or the circumstances related under which they 
were ofTered, were strictly extemporaneous. 

This argument has been already duly considered, and 
may be dismissed without further expansion in this place. 

3. We conclude that no forms of prayer were authorized 
or required in the apostolical churches, because no instruc- 
tions to this effect are given either by Christ or the apostles. 

The Lord's prayer, as we have already seen, was not a 
prescribed form of prayer, neither was it in use in the apos- 
tolical churches ; nor are any intimations given in the New 
Testament of any form of prayer, prayer-book, or ritual of 
any kind, unless the response, to which allusion is made in 
1 Cor. 14 : 16, be considered as such. Here, then, is a 
clear omission, and manifestly designed to show that God 
did not purpose to give any instructions respecting the man- 
ner in which we are to offer to him our prayers. This ar- 
gument from the omissions of Scripture is presented with 
great force by Archbishop Whately, in support of the opin- 
ion which we here offer, and we shall accordingly adopt his 
language to express it. 

After asserting that the sacred writers were supernatural- 
ly withheld from recording some things, he adds : " On no 
supposition, whatever, can we account for the omission, by 
all of them, of many points which they do omit, and of their 
scanty and slight mention of others, except by considering 
them as withheld by the express design and will (whether 
communicated to each of them or not) of their heavenly 
Master, restraining them from committing to writing many 



PRAYERS OF THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 337 

things which, naturally, some or other of them, at least, 
would not have failed so to record. 

" We seek in vain there for many things which, humanly" 
speaking, we should have most surely calculated on finding. 
* No such thing is to be found in our Scriptures as a Cate- 
chism, or regular elementary introduction to the Christian re- 
ligion ; neither do they furnish us with anything of the na- 
ture of a systematic creed, set of articles, confession of faith,, 
or by whatever other name one may designate a regular,, 
complete compendium of Christian doctrines : nor again do 
they supply us with a liturgy for ordinary public worship, or 
with forms for administering the sacraments, or for confer- 
ring holy orders ; nor do they even give any precise directions 
as to these and other ecclesiastical matters ; — anything that 
at all corresponds to a rubric, or set of canons.' 

" Now these omissions present a complete moral demon- 
stration that the apostles and their followers must have been 
sup ernatur ally withheld from recording a great part of the 
institutions, and regulations, which must, in point of fact, 
have proceeded from them ; — withheld, on purpose that other 
churches, in other ages and regions, might not be led to con- 
sider themselves bound to adhere to several formularies, cus- 
toms, and rules, that were of local and temporary appointment ; 
but might be left to their own discretion in matters in which 
it seemed best to divine wisdom that they should be so left." 17 

4. No form of prayer, liturgy, or ritual, was recorded or 
preserved by the contemporaries, inspired or uninspired, of 
the apostles, or by their immediate successors. 

This consideration is nearly allied to the former, and is 
so forcibly urged by Archbishop Whately, that we shall 
again present the argument in his own words. " It was, in- 
deed, not at all to be expected that the Gospels, the Acts, 
and those Epistles which have come down to us, should have 

» Kingdom of Christ, pp. 82, 83. 
29 



338 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

been, considering the circumstances in which they were 
written, anything different from what they are : but the 
question still recurs, why should not the apostles or their fol- 
lowers have also committed to paper, what, we are sure, 
must have been perpetually in their mouths, regular instruc- 
tions to catechumens, articles of faith, prayers, and direc- 
tions as to public worship, and administration of the sacra- 
ments? Why did none of them record any of the prayers, 
of which they must have heard so many from an apostle's 
mouth, both in the ordinary devotional assemblies, in the ad- 
ministration of the sacraments, and in the ' laying on of 
hands,' by which they themselves had been ordained ?" 18 

The superstitious reverence of the early Christians for 
such productions as had been obtained from the apos- 
tles and their contemporaries, is apparent from the nu- 
merous forgeries of epistles, liturgies, etc., which were pub- 
lished under their name. Had any genuine liturgies of the 
apostolical churches been written, it is inconceivable, that 
they should all have been lost, and such miserable forgeries as 
those of James, Peter, Andrew, and Mark, have been substitu- 
ted in their place. Some discovery must have been made of 
these, among other religious books and sacred things of the 
Christians, which in times of persecution were diligently 
sought out and burned. Strict inquiry was made after such ; 
and their sacred books, and sacramental utensils, their cups, 
lamps, torches, vestments, and other apparatus of the church 
were often delivered up, and burnt or destroyed. But there 
is no instance on record, of any form of prayer, liturgy, or 
book of divine service having been discovered, in the early 
persecutions of the church. This fact is so extraordinary, 
that Bingham, who earnestly contends for the use of liturgies 
from the beginning, is constrained to admit, that they could 
not have been committed to writing in the early periods of 
the church, but must have been preserved by oral tradition, 

18 Kingdom of Christ, pp. 252, 253. 



PRAYERS OF THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 339 

and used " by memory, and made familiar by known and 
constant practice." 19 The reader has his alternative, be- 
tween this supposition, and that of no liturgy or prescribed 
form of prayer in those days of primitive simplicity. Con- 
stantine took special care to have fifty copies of the Bible 
prepared for the use of the churches, and, by a royal com- 
mission, entrusted Eusebius, the historian, with the duty of 
procuring them. 20 How is it, that the service-book was en- 
tirely omitted in this provision for the worship of God? 
Plainly because they then used none. 

5. The earliest fathers, in defending the usages of the 
church, and deciding controversies, make no appeal to litur- 
gies, but only to tradition. 

" For these, and other rites of a like character," says Tur- 
tullian, in speaking of the ceremonies of baptism and of the 
Lord's supper, " for these, if you seek the authority of Scrip- 
ture, you will find none. Tradition is your authority, con- 
firmed by custom and faithfully observed." 21 But these 
should have a place in a liturgy. Cyprian advocates the 
mingling of water with wine, at the Lord's supper, by an ap- 
peal to tradition, without any reference to the liturgy of 
James. 22 

Firmilian, his contemporary, admits, that the church at 
Rome did not strictly observe all things which may have 
been delivered at the beginning, " so that it was vain even to 
allege the authority of the apostles." 23 

Basil is even more explicit. After mentioning several 
things which are practised in the church without scriptural 
authority, such as the sign of the cross, praying towards the 

19 Antiq. Book 13, c. 5. 

20 Euseb. Vit. Constant. Lib. 4. 36. 

21 Harum et aliarum hujusmodi disciplinarum si legem, expostules 
scripturarum, nullam invenies. Traditio tibi praetenditur autrix, 
consuetudo confirmatrix, fides observatrix. — De Corona Mil. c. 4. 

22 Ep. ad Caecil. p. 104. 

23 Ep. ad Cyprian, inter Ep. Cyp. 75, p. 144. 






340 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

east, and the form of invocation in the consecration of the 
elements, he proceeds to say, " We do not content ourselves 
with what the apostle or the gospel may have carefully re- 
corded ; with these we are not satisfied ; but we have much to 
say before and after the ordinance, derived from instructions 
which have never been written, as having great efficacy in 
these mysteries." Among these unwritten and unauthorized 
rites, he enumerates afterwards the consecration of the bap- 
tismal water. "From what writings, arto tzoicov iyyQaycov," 
he asks, "comes this formulary? They have none; nothing 
but silent and secret tradition." 24 

From the fact, that the appeal is only to tradition, we con- 
clude, with Du Pin and others, that the apostles neither au- 
thorized, nor left behind them any prescribed form of worship 
or liturgy. 

6. That simplicity in worship, which continued for some 
time after the age of the apostles, forbids the supposition of 
the use of liturgical forms. 

We return now to the second and third centuries, and, 
from the testimonies, particularly of Justin Martyr and Ter- 
tullian, we learn, that the worship of the Christian church, at 
this period, continued to be conducted in primitive simplici- 
ty, without agenda, liturgy or forms of prayer. 

Justin Martyr, in his Apology in behalf of the Christian re- 
ligion, which he presented to the Roman emperor, Antoninus 
Pius, about A. D. 138, or 139 , 25 gives a detailed account of 
the prevailing mode of celebrating the ordinances of baptism 
and the Lord's supper in the Christian church, in which he 
repeatedly mentions the prayers which are offered in these 
solemnities. " After baptizing the believer, and making him 
one with us, we conduct him to the brethren, as they are called, 
where they are assembled, fervently to offer their common sup- 
plications for themselves, for him who has been illuminated, and 

24 De Spiritu Sancto, c. 27. 

25 Justin Martyr, by C. Semisch, Vol. I. p. 72. Trans. Ed. 1843. 



PRAYERS OF THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 341 

for all men everywhere; that we may live worthy of the truth 
which we have learned, and be found to have kept the command- 
ments, so that we may be saved with an everlasting salvation. 
After prayer, we salute one another with a kiss. After this, 
bread, and a cup of wine and water are brought to the president, 
which he takes, and offers up praise and glory to the Father 
of all things, through the name of the Son and of the Holy 
Spirit, and gives thanks that we are accounted worthy of 
these things. When he has ended the prayers and the 
thanksgiving, all the people present respond, amen ! which, in 
Hebrew, signifies, so may it be." 

The description above given, relates to the celebration of the 
Lord's supper when baptism was administered. In the follow- 
ing extract, Justin describes the ordinary celebration of the 
supper on the Lord's day. " On the day called Sunday, we 
all assemble together, both those who reside in the country, 
and they who dwell in the city, and the commentaries of the 
apostles and the writings of the prophets are read as long as 
time permits. When the reader has ended, the president, in 
an address, makes an application, and enforces an imitation 
of the excellent things which have been read. Then we all 
stand up together, and offer up our prayers. After our 
prayers, as I have said, bread and wine and water are brought, 
and the president, in like manner, offers prayers and thanks- 
givings, according to his ability, oat] dvvafiig avrcp, and the 
people respond, saying Amen !" 26 

Justin, according to Eusebius, 27 wrote his Apologies at 
Rome. He was personally acquainted with most of the 
principal churches in every land. Whether we regard this 
as descriptive of the usage of the church at Rome, or of the 
churches generally it is peculiarly gratifying to learn, from a 
witness so unexceptionable, that the church in his time con- 
tinued still to worship God in all the simplicity of the prim- 

26 Apol. 1, 61, 65, 67, pp. 71, 82, 83. See above, 168. 

27 Hist. Eccl. Lib. 4. c. 11. 

29* 



342 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

itive disciples. They meet as brethren in Christ ; they ex- 
change still the apostolical salutation, the kiss of charity; 
the Scriptures are read, and the president or pastor makes 
a familiar address, enforcing the practical duties which have 
been presented in the reading; a prayer is offered in the 
consecration of the sacred elements, in which the suppliant 
prays according to his ability, following only the suggestions 
of his own heart, without any form ; after this, they re- 
ceive the bread and the wine in remembrance of Christ. All 
is done in the affectionate confidence, the simplicity, and 
singleness of heart of the primitive disciples. 28 

The testimony of Justin, however, is claimed on both 
sides. The whole controversy hinges on that vexed passage, 
oari dvvafiig avrco. The congregation all stood up, and the 
president prayed, 6crj dvvafug ccvto), according to his ability. 
Some understand by this phrase, that he prayed with as loud 
a voice as he could ; the very mention of which interpreta- 
tion is its sufficient refutation : cujus mentio est ejus refuta- 
tio. Others translate it, with all the ardor and fervency of 
his soul. 

Such are the interpretations of those who contend for the 
use of a liturgy in the primitive church. On the other hand, 
Justin is understood to say, that the president prayed as well 
as he could, to the best of his ability, or as Tertullian says, 
" ex proprio ingenio." If this be the true meaning, it leads 
to the conclusion that the prayers offered on this occasion 
were strictly extemporaneous. This is the interpretation, 
not only of non-conformists generally, but of some church- 
men. It is the only fair interpretation of the phrase, accord- 
ing to the usus loquendi of this author. 

The same expression occurs in other passages of our au- 
thor, which may serve to illustrate the sense in which he 
uses this equivocal phrase. " We, who worship the Ruler 

28 Comp. Schoene, Geschichtsforschungen der Kirch. Gebrauche, 
1. S. 102, 103. 



PRAYERS OF THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 343 

of the Universe, are not atheists. We affirm, as we are 
taught, that he has no need of blood, libations and incense. 
But, with supplication and thanksgivings, we praise him ac- 
cording to our ability, oat] dvvafug, for all which we enjoy, 
iq? oig TTQoaqjSQo^s&a Ttaoiv, having learned that, worthily 
to honor him is, not to consume in fire by sacrifice what he 
has provided for our sustenance, but to bestow it upon our- 
selves and upon the needy, to show ourselves thankful to him 
by invocations and hymns for our birth, our health, and all 
that he has made; and for the vicissitudes of the season." 29 

The Catholic and Episcopal rendering of this passage 
makes the author say, that, in all our sufferings, iy oig 
TTQOGCpEQope&a Ttaaiv, we praise him, oan dvvapig, with the 
utmost fervency of devotion. This, however, is a mistaken 
rendering of the verb, nqoaqiEQOiiai, which, in the middle voice 
means not to offer in sacrifice, or to worship, but to partici- 
pate, to enjoy. So it is rendered by Scapula, Hedericus, 
Bretschneider, Passow, etc. The passage relates, not to an 
act of sacrifice, nor of public worship, as the connection shows, 
but to deeds of piety towards God, and of benevolence to men, 
done according to their ability ; by which means they offer- 
ed the best refutation of the groundless calumnies of their en- 
emies, who had charged them with an atheistical neglect of 
the gods. The declaration is, that for all their blessings they 
express, according to their ability, thanksgivings to God, and 
testify their gratitude by deeds of charity to their fellow-men. 

" Having, therefore, exhorted you, ogtj dvvafMg, according 
to our ability, both by reason, and a visible sign or figure, we 
know that we shall henceforth be blameless if you do not be- 
lieve, for we have done what we could for your conversion,'^ 
He had done what he could ; by various efforts of argu- 
ment and exhortation, and by visible signs he had labored ac- 
cording to his ability, to bring them to receive the truth. 
The exhortation was the free expression of his heart's desire 

29 Apol. 1. c. 13. pp. 50, 51. 30 Apol. 1. c. 55, p. 77. 



344 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

for their conversion. Can there be any doubt that the phrase 
denotes the same freedom of expression in prayer] These 
passages appear to us clearly to illustrate the meaning of the 
phrase in question as used by our author, and to justify our in- 
terpretation. 31 

If one desires further satisfaction on this point, he has on- 
ly to turn to the works of Origen, in which this and similar 
forms of expression are continually occurring, to denote the in- 
vention, ability, and powers of the mind. Origen in his reply 
to the calumnies of Celsus, proposes to refute them, "accord- 
ing to his ability." 32 In his preface, he has apologized for the 
Christians " as well as he could." 33 These Christians sought, 
" as much as possible," to preserve the purity of the church. 34 
They strove to discover the hidden meaning of God's word, 
" according to the best of their abilities." 35 In these instances 
the reference is not to the fervor of the spirits, the ardor of the 
mind, but to the exercise of the mental powers. The act per- 
formed is done according to the ingenuity, the talents of the 
agents in each case. 

Basil, in giving instructions how to pray, advises to make 
choice of scriptural forms of thanksgiving, and when you have 
praised him thus, according to your ability, cog dvvaaat, ex- 
actly equivalent to 8vva.fiig, — then he advises the suppliant 
to proceed to petitions. 36 The Greeks and the Romans pray 

31 Comp. King, in the author's Antiquities, pp. 213 — 215. Note. 

32 ° Oarj Svva/uig, Lib. 6. § 1. Vol. I. p. 694, so also, jtazd to Svvatov, 
§ 12. p. 638. 

33 Kara rrjv uaQovoav Suva/uiV; Praef. Lib. contr. Cel. 

34 "Oct? dvva/ug, Contr. Cel. Lib. 3. Vol. 1. p. 482. 

35 Lib. 6. § 2. p. 630. Comp. also in Comment, in Math, oat] §v- 
va/ue, Tom. 17. Vol. 111. p. 809, xazd to Svvaror, Tom. 16. Vol. III. 
p. 735, xard dvvapiv, Tom. 17. Vol. III. p. 779, also Vol. IV. p. 6. 
xard rrjv Tiaqovoav dvva/MV, Tom. 17. Vol. 111. p. 794. 

Since writing the above, Clarkson's Discourse on Liturgies has 
fallen under our notice, in which many other passages are given from 
Justin, Origen, Chrysostom, Basil, etc., all illustrating the same use 
of the phrase, pp. 68— 73, 114— 121. 

36 Basil, De Ascet., Vol. II. p. 536. 



PRAYERS OF THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 345 

each in their own language, according to Origen, and each 
praises God as he is able. 37 But enough has been said upon 
this point, and the reader may safely be left to his own con- 
clusions. 

We come next to Tertullian. " We Christians pray with 
eyes uplifted, with hands outspread, with head uncovered ; 
and, . . without a monitor, because from the heart." 38 Can 
this be the manner of one praying from a prayer-book? 
Clarkson has shown, with his usual clearness, that the hea- 
then worshipped by ritual, . . and rehearsed their prayers from 
a book ; and that Tertullian says this to contrast the Chris- 
tian mode of worship with these heartless forms. These 
warm-hearted Christians needed no such promptings to give 
utterance to their devotions. Out of the abundance of the 
heart the mouth speaketh. 

Again, " When the sacramental supper is ended, and we 
have washed our hands, and the candles are lighted, every 
one is invited to sing unto God, as he is able ; either in psalms 
collected from the Holy Scriptures, or composed by himself, 
de proprio ingenio. And as we began, so we conclude all 
with prayer." 39 

From Tertullian we have the earliest information respect- 
ing the religious ordinances of the churches in Africa. The 
reader will not fail to notice, that this church also retains still 
the simplicity of the apostolical churches, mingled with some 
Roman customs. The brethren form a similar fraternity. 
Their religious worship opens with prayer, after which the 
Scriptures are read, and familiar remarks are offered upon 
them. Then follows the sacramental supper, or more properly 
the love-feast of the primitive church, which they begin with 
prayer. After the supper, any one is invited to offer a sa- 

37 oh Svvarai, Origen, Contra Cels. Lib. 8. c. 37. p. 769. 

38 Illuc sursura suspicientes Christiani manibus expansis, quia in- 
nocuis, capite nudo, quia erubescimus ; denique sine monitore, quia 
de pectore oramus. — Apol. c. 30. 

39 Apol. c. 39. 






346 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

cred song, either from the Scriptures, or indited by himself. 
And the whole ends with prayer. The entire narrative indi- 
cates a free, informal mode of worship, as far removed from 
that which is directed by the agenda and rituals of liturgical 
worship as can well be conceived. 

In the same connection, Tertullian also forcibly illustrates 
the sincerity and purity of this primitive worship. Speaking 
of the subjects of their prayers, he says, " These blessings I 
cannot persuade myself to ask of any but of him, from whom 
alone I know that I can obtain them. For he only can be- 
stow them. And to me he has covenanted to grant them. 
For I am his servant and him only do I serve. For this ser- 
vice I stand exposed to death, while I offer to him the noblest 
and best sacrifice which he requires,— prayer proceeding from 
a chaste body, an innocent soul, and a sanctified spirit." 40 
Beautiful exemplification of the words of our Lord to the wo- 
man of Samaria, " Believe me, the hour cometh, when ye 
shall neither in the mountain, nor yet at Jerusalem, worship 
the Father. God is a Spirit, and they that worship him must 
worship him in spirit and in truth." John 4: 21, 24. 

The authority of Tertullian is against the supposition that 
the primitive churches used forms of prayer. " We pray," 
says he, " without a monitor, because from the heart," sine 
monitore quia depectore. Much ingenuity has been employed 
to reconcile this expression with the use of a prayer-book, but 
viewed in connection with the freedom and simplicity in 
which worship was at that time conducted, its real import 
is sufficiently obvious. He justifies, indeed, the use of the 
Lord's prayer ; but seems to intimate that to God alone be- 
longs the right of prescribing forms of prayer. " God alone," 
says he, " can teach us how he would be addressed in prayer." 
But, he adds, " our Lord, who foresaw the necessities of men, 
after he had delivered this form of prayer, said ' Ask and ye 
shall receive ;' and there are some things which need to be 

40 Apol. c. 30. 






PRAYERS OF THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 347 

asked, according to every one's circumstances ; the rightful and 
ordinary being first used as a foundation, we may lawfully add 
other occasional desires, and make this the basis of other pe- 
titions." 41 

From this passage it appears that their manner was, at the 
beginning of the third century, to repeat the Lord's prayer as 
the basis and pattern of all appropriate prayer to God, and 
then to enlarge in free, unpremeditated supplications, accord- 
ing to their circumstances and desires. 

There is another circumstance mentioned above by Ter- 
tullian, which shows how far the worship of the primitive 
Christians was at this time from being confined to the pre- 
scribed and unvarying formalities of a ritual. It appears that 
in their social worship each was invited forth to sing praises 
to God, either from the holy Scriptures, or " de proprio inge- 
nio," of his own composing. Grant, if you please, that these 
sacred songs may have been previously composed by each. 
They are still his own, and have to the hearer all the novelty 
and variety of a strictly extemporaneous effusion. So he who 
leads in prayer, like the one who sings his song, may offer a 
free prayer which he has previously meditated. But in the 
opinion of many, such songs may have been offered impromp- 
tu, like the songs of Moses and Miriam, and Deborah, Sime- 
on and Anna. Augustine speaks of such songs, and ascribes 
to divine inspiration the ability to indite them. The impro- 
visatori of the present age are an example of the extent to 
which such gifts may be cultivated without any supernatural 
aid. 42 If, therefore, such freedom was allowed in their 
psalmody, much more might it be expected in their prayers. 

7. The attitude of the primitive Christians in prayer is 
against the supposition that they used a prayer-book. What, 
according to Tertullian and others, was this attitude? It 

41 De Orat. c. 9. 

42 Comp. Walch. De. Hymn. Eccl. Apost. § 20. Manter, Metr. 
Offenbar. Pref. 



348 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

was with arms raised towards heaven, and hands outspread, 43 
or, it was kneeling and prostrate, with the eyes closed, to shut 
out from view every object that might divert the mind from 
its devotions; or, as Origen expresses it, " closing the eyes of 
his senses, but erecting those of his mind." Few facts in an- 
cient history are better attested than this. The coins that 
were struck in honor of Constantine, represented him in the 
attitude of prayer. But how? not with prayer-book in hand, 
but, with hands extended, and eyes upturned, as if looking to- 
wards heaven, a>g ava ^XsTteiv doxslv dvatETapzvog. 44 

Now all this, if not absolutely incompatible with the use 
of a liturgy, must be allowed at least to have been a very in- 
convenient posture, upon the supposition that a liturgy was 
employed. Can we suppose that this attitude would have 
been assumed at the beginning in the use of a cumbersome 
roll? 

8. We have yet to add that the manner in which precon- 
ceived prayers began to be used, is decisive against any di- 
vine authority for their use. It is an acknowledged histori- 
cal fact, that in the earliest stages of the Episcopal system, 
there was no settled and invariable form of prayer. All that 
was required was, that the prayers should not be unpremedi- 
tated, but previously composed and committed to writing. 
Still they were occasional, and may have had all the variety 
and adaptation of extempore prayers. This fact strikingly 
exhibits an intermediate state in the transition of the church 
from that freedom and absence of forms which characterized 
her earliest and simplest worship, to the imposing formali- 
ties of a later date. But it precludes the supposition that 
an authorized liturgy could have previously existed. 45 

9. If it were necessary to multiply arguments on this 

43 Iliac sursum suspicientes Christiani manibus expansis, etc. Ter- 
tul. Apol. c. 30. Comp. De Orat. c. 11. Adv. Marcion, c. 23. Clem- 
ens. Alex. Strom. 7. 

44 Euseb. Vit. Const. Lib. c. 15. 

45 Comp. Riddle's Christ. Antiq. p. 370. 



PRAYERS OF THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 349 

point we might mention the secret discipline of the church 
as evidence against the use of a liturgy. This of itself is 
regarded by Schone and others, as conclusive on this sub- 
ject ; a written and prescribed liturgy being quite incompat- 
ible with these mysteries. Basil refused to give explanations 
in writing to Miletus, but referred him to Theophrast for 
verbal information, that so the mysteries might not be di- 
vulged by what he would have occasion to write. " Mys- 
teries," said Origen also, with reference to the same point,, 
" must not be committed to writing." The sacramental 
prayers and baptismal rites, which should have a place in a 
liturgy, were among these profound mysteries. How they 
could have been kept veiled in such mystery, if recorded in 
a prayer-book, is past our comprehension. 

Basil, of the fourth century, informs us that he pronounced 
the doxology with varied phraseology — that the baptismal 
formulary was unrecorded, and that the church had not even 
a written creed or confession. 46 Clarkson has shown by a 
multitude of citations, that the same is true, of every part 
of religious worship which a liturgy prescribes. He has 
also given many instances of occasional prayers, which are 
inconsistent with the supposition that they were rehearsed 
from a prayer-book. 47 

Finally, the origin of these ancient liturgies, and the occa- 
sion on which they were prepared, is no recommendation of 
them. 

They had their origin in an ignorant and degenerate 
age. Palmer ascribes the four original liturgies, in which all 
others have originated, to the fifth century. He thinks, how- 
ever, that some expressions in one, may perhaps be traced 
to the fourth. The utmost that even the credulity of the Ox- 

46 Avtr[V §£ ofioXoyiav rijg Ttiorsojg Sig nareqa not vibv xal ayiov 
itvsvfjLa in nolujv y@afifia.TOJV h'%of*sv- — Dt Spiritu Sancto, c. 27. p.. 57, 
comp. p. 55. 

47 Discourse on Liturgies. 

30 



350 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

ford Tractarians pretends to claim in favor of their antiquity, 
is, that "one, that of Basil, may be traced with tolerable cer- 
tainty to the fourth century, and three others to the middle 
of the fifth." 48 Ambrose, Augustine, Gregory, Basil and 
Chrysostom, those great luminaries of the church, had passed 
away, and an age of ignorance and superstition had succeed- 
ed. Riddle of Oxford, the faithful chronicler of the church, 
gives the following sketch of the degeneracy of this age, — 
the close of the fourth century. 

" Superstitious veneration of martyrs and their relics, cre- 
dulous reliance upon their reputed powers of intercession, re- 
ports of miracles and visions at their tombs, and other follies 
of this kind, form a prominent feature in the religion of the 
age. 

" New Festivals during this century. — Christmas-day, As- 
cension-day, Whitsunday (in the modern sense). 

" Baptismal Rites, Ceremonies, etc. — 1. Wax tapers in the 
hands of the candidates ; 2. Use of salt, milk, wine, and 
honey ; 3. Baptisteries ; 4. Easter and Whitsuntide, times of 
baptism ; 5. Twofold anointing, before and after baptism ; 
6. Dominica in A Ibis. 

" The Lord's Supper, 1. was now commonly called Missa 
by the Latins; 2. Tables had come into use, and were now 
called altars ; 3. Liturgies used at the celebration of the rite ; 
4. Elements still administered in both kinds as before ; 5. No 
private masses. 

" Rapid progress of church oligarchy, and formation of 
the patriarchate" 

Again, A. D. 439, " Christian morality declines. — Two dis- 
tinct codes of morals gradually formed, one for perfect Chris- 
tians, and another for the more common class of believers; 
—the former consisting of mysticism and ascetic or over- 
strained virtue, — the latter in the performance of outtoard 
ceremonies and ritual observances. The distinction itself un- 

48 Tract, No. 63, Vol. 1. p. 439. 



PRAYERS OF THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 351 

sound and mischievous ; the morality, to a great extent, per- 
verted or fictitious. 

" History now records fewer examples of high Christian 
character than before. Complaints of the fathers, and de- 
crees of councils, lead us to fear that impiety and disorderly 
conduct prevailed within the borders of the church to a mel- 
ancholy extent. Superstition makes rapid progress." 49 

Out of this age, when nothing was introduced "but cor- 
ruptions, and the issues thereof; no change made in the cur- 
rent usages, but for the worse; no motions from its primitive 
posture, but downwards into degeneracy 'f — out of this age, 
proceeded the first liturgy, the offspring of ignorance and 
superstition ! 

The clergy had become notoriously ignorant and corrupt, 
unable suitably to guide the devotions of public worship ; and, 
to assist them in their ignorance and incompetence, liturgies 
were provided for their use. 50 " When, in process of time, 
the distinguished fathers of the church had passed away, and 
others, of an inferior standing, arose in their places with less 
learning and talents for public speaking, — as barbarism and 
ignorance continued to overspread the Roman empire, and 
after the secret mysteries of Christianity had been done away, 
or, at least, had assumed another form of manifestation, — 
then, the clergy, not being competent themselves to conduct 
the exercises of religious worship to the edification of the peo- 
ple, saw the necessity of providing themselves with written for- 
mulas for their assistance. For this purpose, men were read- 
ily found to indite and transcribe them. In this manner, 

49 Riddle's Chronology, A. D. 400, A. D. 439. 

50 The reader will find abundant evidence of this ignorance, in the 
councils of this age, and in Blondell, Apologia Hieron., pp. 500, 501, 
Clarkson, Discourse on Liturgies, pp. 191 — 197, and Witsius, Exer- 
citat. De Oratione, § 30, 31, p. 85. In the council of Ephesus, in the 
fifth century, Elias signs his name by the hand of another, because he 
could not write his name : co quod nesciam literas. So, also, Caju- 
mas : propter ea quod literas ignorem. 



352 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

arose its formularies, which are known under the name of lit- 
urgies and missals, and which afterwards, in order to give 
greater authority to them, were ascribed to distinguished men, 
and even to the apostles themselves, as their authors." 51 

Now we seriously ask, Shall superstition, ignorance, and 
barbarism, rather than God's own word, teach us how we 
may most acceptably worship him 1 Shall we forsake the 
example of Christ and the apostles, to imitate ignorant men, 
who first made use of a liturgy, because they were unable, 
without it, decently to conduct the worship of God 1 

How forcibly does the formality of such liturgical services 
contrast with the simplicity and moral efficacy of primitive 
worship ? Christianity ascends the throne, and, in connec- 
tion with the secular power, gives laws to the state. The 
government has a monarch at its head; and the church, 
bishops in close alliance with him. The simple rites of re- 
ligion, impressive and touching by their simplicity, have 
given place to an imposing and princely parade in religious 
worship. Splendid churches are erected. The clergy are 
decked out with gorgeous vestments, assisted by a numer- 
ous train of attendants, and proceed in the worship of God 
with all the formalities of a prescribed and complicated 
ritual. Age after age these liturgical forms continue to in- 
crease with the superstition and degeneracy of the church, 
until her service becomes encumbered with an inconceivable 
mass of missals, breviaries, rituals, pontificals, graduals, an- 
tiphonals, psalteries, etc., alike unintelligible and unmeaning. 

But the simplicity of primitive Christianity gives it power. 
It has no cumbersome rites to embarrass the truth of God. 
Nothing to dazzle the eye, to amuse and occupy the mind 
that is feeling after God, if haply it may find him. All its 
solemn, simple rites are in harmony with the simplicity of 
that system of gospel truth, which is at once the wisdom of 

51 Geschichtsforschungen, der Kirch. Gebrauche, II. S. 120, 121. 



PRAYERS OF THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 353 

God and the power of God, in the conversion of men. They 
present an easy and natural medium for the communication 
of religious truth to the soul, and lay the mind open to its 
quickening power, without the parade of outward forms to 
hinder its secret influences upon the mind. 



REMARKS. 

1. To the people of the congregation forms of prayer are 
inappropriate. 

There is an intimacy in all our joys, our sorrows, and our 
trials ; an intimacy and identity which makes them peculiar- 
ly our own ; so that they find not a just expression in the lan- 
guage of another. The language may be more select, more 
appropriate, in the estimation of another who knows not our 
hearts, but it is not our own, and but poorly expresses our 
emotions and desires. How variable withal, is this infinite 
play of the passions in the heart ; and how preposterous the 
attempt to give utterance to them in one unvarying tone ! 
As if the harp of David were always strung to the same key 
and sounded one unchanging note ! First, stereotype the 
mind and heart of man, and then is he prepared to express 
his devotions in the unvarying letter of a liturgy. 

Amid all the ills that man is heir to, new and unforeseen 
calamities are ever and anon met with, which would natural- 
ly bring men to the throne of grace with supplications and 
entreaties of a special character. Shall we wait now until 
notice is given to the diocesan in the distant metropolis, and 
a prayer returned at last duly prepared for the occasion ? 
But before it comes, that occasion may have gone by, and 
given place to something else for which the bishop's form is 
altogether inappropriate. 

2. Liturgical forms become wearisome by constant repe- 
tition. 

30* 



354 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

The love of change is inherent in the breast of man. 
We must have variety. Without it, even our refined plea- 
sures lose their charm in a dull and dead monotony. So a 
liturgy, however excellent in diction, or noble in sentiment, 
loses its interest by perpetual repetition. The continual re- 
currence even of the best possible form, that of the Lord's 
prayer, injures its effect upon our own mind. We have 
heard it at the table in our daily meals ; at morning and 
evening prayer, and in some instances it has been the only 
prayer offered in our hearing on such occasions ; at funerals, 
at marriages, in baptism, in confirmation, at the sacrament 
of the Lord's supper ; and in every public service, not once 
merely, but twice or thrice, and even more than this ; as 
if no religious act could be rightly done, without the intro- 
duction somewhere of the Lord's prayer. Such ceaseless 
repetition only creates a weariness of spirit, in which one 
earnestly craves a freer and more informal mode of worship. 
X<et the following testimony suffice for illustration. " How 
often have I been grieved to observe coldness and compara- 
tive indifference in the reading-desk, but warmth and anima- 
tion in the pulpit ! In how many different places have I 
been obliged to conclude, this man preaches in earnest, but 
prays with indifference ! I have asked myself, I have asked 
others, what is the reason of such conduct." 52 The case so 
embarrassing to our churchman is easily explained. In the 
reading-desk, the Episcopal preacher utters the cold dicta- 
tions of another ; in the pulpit he expresses the warm sug- 
gestions of his own heart. Here, accordingly, his utterance 
is instinct with life and spirit ; there it is changed by per- 
petual repetition into chilling indifference. 

3. The significancy of a liturgy is lost by its constant rep- 
etition. 

To one who but seldom frequents an Episcopal house of 
worship, there may be much that is impressive in the liturgy. 

52 Churchman, in Christian Observer, 1804, p. 271. 



PRAYERS OF THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 355 

But the impression, we apprehend, must be greatly diminish- 
ed by a constant attendance. The words of the prayer-book, 
when grown familiar, lose in a great degree, their signifi- 
cancy. They fall upon the ear like the murmur of the distant 
waterfall, lulling the mind to repose, or leaving it to the un- 
disturbed enjoyment of its idle musings. The listless inat- 
tention of men to the reading of the Scriptures, is a subject 
of public and painful notoriety ; and the reason assigned is, 
that, by long familiarity and constant repetition, the words 
even of the great Jehovah fall upon the ear without making 
any adequate impression on the mind. The same result, in 
a much higher degree, may be expected from the constant 
recital of the liturgy. It may be a form of sound words ; but 
it becomes in time no more than a form of words, received pas- 
sively and without producing the requisite impression. " This 
same service, now repeated for the thousandth, the ten thou- 
sandth time — which has stood printed before the eye ever 
since it could trace a line, which no moment of personal or 
public excitement ever warmed or can warm into a higher 
flight, — this same weary monotony for youth and age — this 
eternal dead letter loses much of its power by long practice, 
and dwells often in the memory after it has ceased to touch 
the heart." 

4. A liturgy is often not in harmony with the subject of 
discourse. 

The preceding remarks relate to the disadvantages of the 
liturgy to the people ; the present, and some that follow, have 
reference to the inconvenience experienced by the clergyman 
from the same source. Every preacher knows the impor- 
tance of harmony in his services. And if permitted, in the 
freedom of primitive worship, to direct them accordingly, he 
studiously seeks to make the impression from the prayers, the 
psalmody, and the reading of the Scriptures, coincident with 
the subject of his sermon ; so that all may conspire to pro- 
duce a single impression upon the hearer. The final result 



356 THE PRIMITIVE CHMlCtt. 

upon the audience is ascribable in a great degree to the har- 
mony which pervades the entire service. But here the lit- 
urgy interposes its unyielding forms, to break up this har- 
mony of the service, and sadly to impair the effect of it upon 
the audience. 

5. The liturgy is not a suitable preparation for the impres- 
sion of the sermon. 

Much of the practical effect of the preacher's discourse de- 
pends upon the previous preparation of the mind for it. This 
preparation results, in a great degree, from a happy adapta- 
tion of the preliminary services to this end. But the prelim- 
inaries of the liturgy move on with unvarying formality, car- 
rying the mind, it may be, directly away from the subject of 
the discourse that is to follow, or leaving the audience unin- 
terested and unprepared for any quickened impression from 
the preacher. He rises to address them, with the disheart- 
ening conviction that they are in no state rightly to receive 
what he has to say, he advances in his discourse, under the 
consciousness that he is toiling at a task that is too heavy for 
him ; and retires at last with the feeling that he has only la- 
bored in vain, and spent his strength for nought. So in the 
event, it appears ; all has been done with cold and decent 
formality, but the profiting of the hearer is not apparent. 
How much of the inefficacy of the pulpit in the Episcopal 
church is ascribable to this cause, we leave the reader to 
judge. 

6. A liturgy curtails unreasonably the time allotted to the 
sermon. 

A sermon we know may be, and often is, too long; it may 
also be too short Following the protracted recitals of the 
liturgy, it is necessarily crowded into a narrow space, at the 
conclusion of a service which has already unfitted the audience 
for a calm, sustained attention to the preacher. What he has 
to say, must be quickly said ; he therefore hurries through a 
brief and superficial exposition of his subject, and dismisses 



PRAYERS OF THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 357 

it with a hasty application, before it has had time to assume 
in the hearer's mind that importance which belongs to its mo- 
mentous truths. And the final result is that it falls powerless 
upon the consciences of the audience. 

7. The liturgy exalts the inventions of man above the truth 
of God. 

The liturgy is ever prominently before the audience ; claim- 
ing the first attention, the highest place in all the acts of wor- 
ship. In some liturgies the reading of the Scriptures forms 
no part of the public service, and in others, the word of God 
is mixed up with a mass of foreign ingredients which do but 
neutralize its power. The tendency of the whole arrange- 
ment is to keep back the word of God, to hold in check its 
power, to rob religious truth of its chief glory as the means 
of salvation, and to substitute in its place a system of mere 
formalism. 

In this connection, the profound remarks of Archbishop 
Whately, respecting undue reliance on human authority, are 
worthy of serious consideration. He exposes with great force 
the disposition of men, to "obtrude into the place of Scrip- 
ture, creeds, catechisms, and liturgies, and other such com- 
positions, set forth by any church." This disposition he as- 
cribes to deep seated principles of our nature. He supposes 
that nothing but a miraculous providence could have so di- 
rected the apostles and primitive Christians, that they left no 
such formulary of religious worship, or compend of the Chris- 
tian faith. " Such a systematic course of instruction, carry- 
ing with it divine authority, would have superseded the framing 
of any others — nay, would have made even the alteration of a 
single word, of what would on this supposition have been 
Scripture, appear an impious presumption. ... So that there 
would have been an almost inevitable danger, that such an 
authoritative list of credenda would have been regarded, by a 
large proportion of Christians, with a blind, unthinking reve- 
rence, which would have exerted no influence on the charac- 



358 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

ter. They would have had a form of godliness; but, deny- 
ing the power thereof, the form itself would have remained 
with them only the corpse of departed religion." 53 

Ought not then this momentous consideration to excite a 
wise jealousy of a tendency, which may so easily be abused ? 
In our mind, it is an urgent reason for confining the ceremo- 
nials of religion within the strictest limits. But this continu- 
al recital of creeds and confessions, this perpetual profession 
of faith in the " holy catholic church," these rites of the ritu- 
al ever recurring, and foremost in importance, to which every 
thing else gives place in public worship, — who can doubt the 
practical influence of all this? It casts into shade and dis- 
tance God's own word. It brings forward the dictations of 
canonized tradition as the rule of faith and of worship; and 
spiritual truth is forgotten in this parading of the ceremo- 
nials of religion. 

8. The book of Common Prayer dishonors the holy sab- 
bath. 

We have sought in vain for any clear expression of the di- 
vine authority of the Lord's day. It is specified in the calen- 
dar among many other holy days of the church, some of which 
seem to be regarded with equal reverence. The specifi- 
cations respecting it, all serve to direct the mind to it as 
merely an ordinance of the church. They bring it down from 
its lofty place as a divine institution, and blend it unworthily 
with a multitude of saints' days, which a blind superstition 
first established and still venerates. When the true doctrine 
of the sacred sabbath was first promulgated, it encountered 
for half a century the furious opposition of the established 
church on this very principle, that it was derogatory to the 
authority of the church, and to the reverence due to its festivals 
and fasts. The advocates of this doctrine were suspended 
from their ministerial duties, deposed and imprisoned for dar- 
ing to assert, that this holy sabbath depended on higher au- 

® Errors of Romanism, pp, 49 — 61. 



PRAYERS OF THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 359 

thority than the usage and decrees of the church. Whatever 
may be the sentiments of Episcopalians at present respecting 
this day, we cannot resist the conviction, that it has in the 
prayer-book no higher place than the other holy days of the 
church. 

9. We object to the popish origin and tendencies of the 
English liturgy. 

It is a translation and compend of the popish ritual, and 
still savors too strongly of its origin. We hear, indeed, so 
much of this "excellent," "this noble and pathetic liturgy," 
that it seems almost like sacrilege to touch that holy thing 
with other sentiments than those of profound veneration. But 
we dislike its origin, and the character which it inherits. 
Must we, in this nineteenth century, go back to the dark 
ages of popery, and learn from her traditions, her supersti- 
tions, how we may best worship God in spirit and in truth? 
But this " pathetic litany," " this noble liturgy," it is said, — 
" is it not admirable?" To which we must still reply, 

Timeo Danaos et dona ferentes ! 54 

Let us examine a little. What change has the liturgy un- 
dergone, in passing over from the Romish to the English 
church, and what is the difference between the religion of 
the two churches. The chief points of distinction, accord- 
ing to Hallam, are the following: 

1. The liturgy was translated into the vernacular language 
of the people. Formerly, it had been in an unknown tongue. 

2. Its acts of idolatrous worship to saints and images were 
expunged. 

3. Auricular confession was done away ; or rather it was 
left to every man's discretion, and went into neglect. 

4. "The doctrine of transubstantiation, or the change, at 
the moment of consecration, of the substances of bread and 
wine into those of Christ's body and blood," was discarded. 

54 I dred the Greeks ; yea, when they offer gyftes. — Howard's Trans. 



360 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

5. The celibacy of the clergy was abolished. 55 
With these modifications the religion of Rome became 
that of the church of England. And to this day, her ritual, 
crudely formed in the infancy of protestanism, which Milton 
denominates " an extract of the mass translated," continues 
with little variation to be the liturgy of the whole Episcopal 
church in England and America. Like the ancient liturgies, 
it was prepared for a priesthood who were too ignorant to 
conduct religious worship with decency without it. Even 
the book of homilies was drawn up at the same time, " to 
supply the defect of preaching, which few of the clergy at 
that time were capable of performing." 56 

Multitudes in the kingdom were strongly attached still to 
the Roman Catholic religion. It was a politic measure to 
conciliate these as far as possible. For various reasons, 
the Reformers sought to make a gradual, rather than an 
abrupt departure from popery. The liturgy accordingly had 
then, and still retains many popish affinities. These are seen 
in the canonizing of saints, and celebration of saint's days; 
in the absolution by the priests, modified so as to unite the 
Protestant idea of forgiveness of sin by God alone, with the 
popish absolution by the priest ; in the endless reiterations of 
the Lord's prayer ; in the inordinate prominence that is giv- 
en to liturgical forms; in the qualified and cautious phrase- 
ology of the communion service, and the special care that all 
the consecrated bread and wine shall be eaten and drunk, so 
that none of it shall be carried out of the church, — a point 
upon which the papists are ridiculously superstitious. 57 These 

55 Constitutional History, Vol. I. pp. 116 — 126. 

56 Neal's History of Puritans, 1. p. 90. Hetherington's History of 
Westminster Divines, p. 21. 

57 In the amendment of the liturgy, under Elizabeth, " the words 
used in distributing the elements, -were so contrived as neither to of- 
fend the Popish, or Lutheran, or Zuinglian communicant." — Hal lam's 
Const. Hist. Vol. 1. p. 150 note. Very catholic and accommodating, 
surely ! 



PRAYERS OF THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 361 

popish tenets are seen particularly in the baptismal regenera- 
tion of the liturgy, by which the child becomes " regenerate, 
and grafted into the body of Christ's church. . . . We yield thee 
hearty thanks, most merciful Father, that it hath pleased thee- 
to regenerate this infant with thy Holy Spirit, to receive him 
for thine own child by adoption." The order of confirmation; 
is so conducted as to confirm one in the delusion,, that he ha& 
become " regenerate by water, and the Holy Ghost," through 
the instrumentality of this rite, rather than by that grace 
which is the gift of God. The burial service, also, is exceed- 
ingly objectionable. " Forasmuch as it hath pleased Al- 
mighty God, of his great mercy, to take unto himself the soul 
of our deceased brother here departed, we therefore commit 
his body to the ground ; earth to earth, ashes to ashes, dust 
to dust, in sure and certain hope of the resurrection to eternal 
life through our Lord Jesus Christ." This is said of every 
one alike, however profligate his life, however hopeless his 
death. In the American service, instead of this, at the grave 
is said or sung, " I heard a voice from heaven, saying unto 
me, ■ Write, from henceforth blessed are the dead who die in 
the Lord ; even so, saith the Spirit, for they rest from their 
labors.' " Rev. 14: 13. The practical influence of this ser- 
vice is apparent from the following remark of Archbishop 
Whately. " I have known a person, in speaking of a deceas- 
ed neighbor, whose character had been irreligious and profli- 
gate, remark, how great a comfort it was to hear the words 
of the funeral service read over her, ' because, poor woman,, 
she had been such a bad liver.' " 58 

Without controversy, a temporizing policy guided the 
early Reformers in the preparation of the English prayer- 
book. However many of the Episcopal church may repu- 
diate the semi-popish delusion of Puseyism, which has come 
up over the length and breadth of our land, it is indirectly 

58 Errors of Romanism, p. 55. 

31 



362 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

supported, if not plainly taught, in her ritual. The English 
reformers attempted a sinful compromise with the corruptions 
of the church of Rome. In the language of Macaulay, " The 
scheme was merely to rob the Babylonian enchantress of her 
ornaments; to transfer the full cup of her sorceries to other 
hands, spilling as little as possible by the way. The Cath- 
olic doctrines and rites were to be retained in the church of 
England."* 

The great effort of a large party in this church at present 
is to reinstate these popish doctrines and rites — an effort 
which Roman Catholics regard with the deepest interest. 
The celebrated Dr. Wiseman expresses, in the liveliest terms, 
his gratification at " the movement" of the Oxford Tracta- 
rians " towards Catholic ideas and Catholic feelings." He 
has " watched its progress with growing interest," because 
he " saw in it the surest guarantee and principle of success. 
The course which we (papists) ought to pursue seems simple 
and clear, — to admire and bless, and, at the same time, to se- 
cond and favor, as far as human means can, the course which 
God's providence has opened, and is pursuing; but to be 
careful how we thwart it. It seems to me impossible to read 
the works of the Oxford divines, and especially to follow them 
chronologically without discovering a daily approach towards 
our holy church, both in doctrine and affectionate feeling. 
Our saints, our popes, our rites and ceremonies, offices, nay, 
our very rubrics are precious in their eyes, far alas beyond 
what many of us consider them." 60 

59 Review of Hallam's Constitutional History. See in the Appen- 
dix a further illustration of this. 

60 Cited in Rev. H. H. Beamish's Letter to Dr. Pusey, p. 9. 



CHAPTER XII. 

PSALMODY OF THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

The singing of spiritual songs constituted, from the be- 
ginning, an interesting and important part of religious wor- 
ship in the primitive church. The course of our remarks 
on this subject will lead us to consider, 

I. The argument for Christian psalmody as a part of re- 
ligious worship. 

II. The mode of singing, in the ancient church. 

III. The changes in the psalmody of the church. 

L Argument for the psalmody of the primitive church. 

1. From reason. 

Praise is the appropriate language of devotion. A fer- 
vent spirit of devotion instinctively seeks to express itself in 
song. In the strains of poetry, joined with the melody of 
music, it finds an easy and natural utterance of its elevated 
emotions. Can it be doubted, then, that that Spirit which 
was shed abroad upon the disciples after our Lord's ascension, 
would direct them to the continued use of the sacred psalm- 
ody of their own Scriptures, indited by the inspiration of 
the same Spirit ? Is it unreasonable to suppose, that the 
glad spirit with which they continued praising God, might 
direct them to indite other spiritual songs to the praise of 
their Lord, whose wondrous life and death so employed their 
contemplations, and whose love so inspired their hearts? 



364 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

The opinion has been expressed by Grotius, and is supported 
by many others, that we have, in Acts 4 : 24 — 30, an epi- 
tome of such an early Christian hymn to Christ. 1 

2. From analogy. 

The singing of songs constituted a great part of the re- 
ligious worship of all ancient nations. In all their religious 
festivals, and in their temples, those pagan nations sung to 
the praise of their idol gods. 2 The worship of the Jews, 
not only in the temple, but in their synagogues and in their 
private dwellings, was celebrated with sacred hymns to God. 
Many of the loftiest, sweetest strains of Hebrew poetry were 
sung by their sacred minstrels on such occasions. Christ, 
himself, in his final interview with his disciples, before his 
crucifixion, sung with them the customary paschal songs, at 
the institution of the sacrament ; 3 and, by his example, sanc- 
tified the use of sacred songs in the Christian church. All 
analogy drawn from other forms of religious worship, pagan 
and Jewish, requires us to ascribe to the primitive Christians 
the use of spiritual songs in their public devotions. 

3. From Scripture. 

The same is clearly indicated in the writings of the New 
Testament. 

Without doubt, in the opinion of Miinter, 4 the gift of the 

1 Comp. Augusti, Denkwurdigkeiten, Vol. V. 248. 
2 Semper id est cordi musis, semperque poetis 
Ut divos celebrent, laudes celebrentque virorum 
'Tfivuv a&avdrovg, vfivtlv aya&oiv x?Ja olvSqmv. 

Theocritus, cited by Gerbert, Musica Sacra, T. 1 . 
Pref. Comp. 61. § 5, in which are many 
references of a similar kind. 

3 The collect for such occasions is comprised in Psalms 113 — 118, 
the first two before the paschal supper, and the remainder after it. 
The theory has been advanced, but without reason, that Christ him- 
self indited the hymn on this occasion. Neither is it necessary to 
suppose that, all the hymns above-mentioned were sung by him and 
the disciples at this time. 

4 Com. Miinter, Metrisch. Uebersetz. der Oifenbar. Johann. Vor- 
rede, S. 17. 



PSALMODY OF THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 365 

Holy Spirit on the day of Pentecost was accompanied with 
poetic inspiration, to which the disciples gave utterance in 
the rhapsodies of spiritual songs. Acts 2 : 4, 13, 47. The 
opinion of Groti.us and others, with reference to Acts 4 : 
24 — 30, has already been mentioned. But there are other 
passages which clearly indicate the use of religious songs in 
the worship of God. £aul and Silas, lacerated by the cruel 
scourging which they had received, and in close confinement 
in the inner prison, prayed and sang praises to God at mid- 
night. Acts 16 : 25. The use of psalms and hymns, and 
spiritual songs, moreover, is directly enjoined upon the 
churches, by the apostle, as an essential part of religious de- 
votions. Col. 3 : 16. Eph. 5 : 19. The latter epistle was a 
circular letter to the Gentile churches of Asia ; 5 and, there- 
fore, in connection with that to the church at Colosse, is ex- 
plicit authority for the use of Christian psalmody in the re- 
ligious worship of the apostolical churches. 6 

The use of such psalmody, evidently, was not restricted 
merely to the public worship of God. In connection with 
the passage from Ephesians, the apostle warns those whom 
he addresses against the use of wine, and the excesses to 
which it leads, with evident reference to those abuses which 
dishonored their sacramental supper and love-feasts. In op- 
position to the vain songs which, in such excesses, they might 
be disposed to sing, they are urged to the sober, religious use 
of psalms and hymns and spiritual songs. 

The phraseology, therefore, indicates that they were not 
restricted to the use of the psalms of David merely, as in 
the Jewish worship ; but were at liberty to employ others of 
appropriate religious character in their devotions. It seems 
also that the Corinthians were accustomed to make use of 
songs composed for the occasion. 1 Cor. 14 : 26. And 

5 Neander's Apost. Kirch. I. 450, 3d ed. 

6 All this is shown at length by J. G. Walch, De Hymnis Eccle- 
siae Apostolicae. 

31* 



366 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

though the apostle had occasion to correct their disorderly pro- 
ceedings, it does not appear that he forbade the use of such 
songs. On the contrary, there is the highest probability 
that the apostolical churches did not restrict themselves 
simply to the use of the Jewish Psalter. And the evidence 
is sufficiently clear, that the primitive churches very early 
employed, in their devotions, not merely the psalms, appro- 
priately so called, but hymns and spiritual songs indited for 
the worship of the Christian church. 

Grotius and others have supposed that some fragments of 
these early hymns are contained, not only as above-mention- 
ed, in Acts, but perhaps, also, in 1 Tim. 3: 16. Something 
iike poetic antithesis they have imagined to be contained in 
1 Tim. 1:1.2 Tim. 2: 11—13. The expression in Rev- 
elation, " I am Alpha and Omega ; the first and the last, 5 ' 
has been ascribed to the same origin, as has also Rev. 4: 8, 
together with the song of Moses and the Lamb, Rev. 15: 3, and 
the sonors of the elders and the beasts, Rev. 5 : 9 — 14. Cer- 
tain parts of the book itself have been supposed to be strict- 
ly poetical, and may have been used as such in Christian 
worship, such as Rev. 1: 4—8. 11: 15—19. 15: 3, 4. 21: 
1 — 8. 22: 10 — 18. But the argument is not conclusive; 
and all the learned criticism, the talent, and the taste that 
have been employed on this point, leave us little else than un- 
certain conjecture on which to build an hypothesis. 

4. From history. 

The earliest authentic record on this subject is the cele- 
brated letter from Pliny to Trajan, just at the close of the 
apostolical age, A. D. 103, 104. In the investigations which 
he instituted against the Christians of his period, he discover- 
ed, among other things, that they were accustomed to meet 
before day, to offer praise to Christ as God, or as a God, as 
some contend that it should be rendered. 7 The expression 

7 Carmen Christo quasi Deo dicere secum invicem. — Epist. Lib. 
10. 97. 



PSALMODY OF THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 367 

is somewhat equivocal, and might be used with reference to 
the ascription of praise in prayer, or in song. But it appears 
that these Christians rehearsed their carmen invicem, alter- 
nately, as if in responsive songs, according to the ancient 
custom of singing in the Jewish worship. Tertullian, only a 
century later, evidently understood the passage to be descrip- 
tive of this mode of worshipping God and Christ, for he says 
that Pliny intended to express nothing else than assemblies 
before the dawn of the morning, for singing praise to Christ 
and to God, coetus antelucanos, ad canendum Christo et Deo. Q 
Eusebius also gives the passage a similar interpretation, say- 
ing, that Pliny could find nothing against them save that, 
arising at the dawn of the morning, they sang hymns to Christ 
as God, TVhrv to ye, a\i& ty eco dieyeiQOfxt'vovg tov Xqkjjov 
0€ov dixijv vfiveTv. 9 Viewed in this light, according to the 
most approved interpretation of the passage, it becomes evi- 
dence of the use of Christian psalmody among the Christians 
immediately subsequent to the age of the apostles. 10 Ter- 
tullian himself also distinctly testifies to the use of songs to the 
praise of God, by the primitive Christians. Every one, he says, 
was invited in their public worship to sing unto God, accord- 
ing to his ability, either from the Scriptures, or de proprio in- 
genio, one indited by himself, according to the interpretation 
of Miinter. Whatever may be the meaning of this phrase, 
the passage clearly asserts the use of Christian psalmody in 
their religious worship. Again, he speaks of singing, in con- 
nection with the reading of the Scriptures, exhortations, and 
prayer in public worship. 11 Eusebius also speaks of singing 
in a similar manner. 12 

Justin Martyr also mentions the songs and hymns of the 
Ephesian Christians. " We manifest our gratitude to him 
by worshipping him in spiritual songs and hymns, praising 

8 Apolog. c. 2. 9 Eccl. Hist. Lib. 3. 32. 

10 Miinter, Metrisch. Offenbar. S. 25. 

11 De Anima, c. 9. 12 Vit. Const. Lib. 4. c. 45. 



368 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

him for our birth, for our health, for the vicissitudes of the 
seasons, and for the hopes of immortality." 13 

The testimony of Origen, t A. D. 254, again, of the church 
of Alexandria, is to the same effect. In answer to the charge 
of Celsus, that the Christians worshipped the great God, and 
sang hymns also to the sun and to Minerva, he says, " we 
know the contrary, for these hymns are to him who alone is 
called God over all, and to his only begotten [Son]." 14 

Eusebius also has left on record the important testimony of 
Caius, as is generally supposed, an ancient historian, and 
contemporary of Tertullian. " Who knows not the writings 
of Irenaeus, Melito, and others, which exhibit Christ as God 
and man 1 And how many songs and odes of the brethren 
there are, written from the beginning, jam pridem, a long 
time since, by believers, which offer praise to Christ as the 
Word of God, ascribing divinity to him." 15 This passage not 
only presents a new and independent testimony to the use of 
spiritual songs in the Christian church, from the remotest 
antiquity, aii dQ%rjg, to the praise of Christ as divine, but it 
shows that these, in great numbers, had been committed to 
writing, as it appears, for continued use. So that we here 
have evidence of the existence of a Christian hymn-book from 
the beginning. 

Christ, the only-begotten of the Father, is the burden of 
these primitive songs and hymns. Here is he set forth doc- 

13 Apol. c. 13. Justin Martyr wrote, as is supposed, also a work 
on Christian Psalmody, the loss of which we have deeply to deplore. 
Living within half a century of the age of the apostles it would be 
particularly interesting to receive from him a treatise on this inter- 
esting subject. The references are from Semisch, Euseb. Eccl. Hist. 
Lib. 4. c. 18. and Phot. Bibl. Cod. Vol. 1. p. 95. 6 intyQacpo/nevos 
ipolrrjg. Comp. Fabric. Bibliothec. Graec. ed Harl. VII. p. 67. 

14 Against Celsum, Lib. 8. c. 67. p. 792, ed. Ruaei : v/ivovg ydo e7$ 
fiovov rov sir I Tract. Xeyo/uevov •d'tov, xal rev fiovoyevij avrov. 

15 HaaX/uol §e hoot xal wSai ddtXywv anaqyriq vnb tciotwv yQatpet- 
aaij rov Xoyov rov Geov top Xqiotov vfivowi $ eoXoyovvr.es, — Eccl. 
Hist. Lib. 5. 28. 



PSALMODY OF THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 369 

trinalty, fteoloyixcog, as the incarnate Word of God, as 
God and man. His mediatorial character was the subject of 
the songs of these apostolical and primitive saints. This 
sacred theme inspired the earliest anthems of the Christian 
church ; and, as it has ever been the subject of her sweet- 
est melodies and loftiest strains, so doubtless will it continue 
to be, until the last of her ransomed sons shall end the songs 
of the redeemed on earth, and wake his harp to nobler, 
sweeter strains in heaven. 16 

One ancient hymn of ihe primitive church appears to 
have come down to us entire, from that distant period. It 
is found, indeed, in the Paedagoge of Clement of Alexan- 
dria, a work bearing date some hundred and fifty years from 
the time of the apostles ; but it is ascribed to another, and 
assigned to an earlier origin. It is wanting in some of the 
manuscripts of Clement. It contains figurative language 
and forms of expression which were familiar to the church 
at an earlier date ; and, for various reasons, is regarded by 
Miinter and Bull, 17 as a venerable relic of the early church, 
which has escaped the ravages of time, and still remains, a 
solitary remnant of the Christian psalmody of that early age. 
However this may be, it is certainly very ancient, and the 
earliest that has been preserved and transmitted to us. It is 
a hymn to Christ ; and, though regarded merely as a poetical 
production it has little claim to consideration, it shows what 

16 Whatever may be the doctrinal truth in regard to the character 
of Christ, it is abundantly evident, that he was worshipped as divine 
in the prayers and psalmody of the primitive church. See the au- 
thor's Christian Antiquities, pp. 203 — 206. This truth, again, is con- 
firmed by the fact mentioned by Neander, that, " In the controversy 
with the Unitarians, at the close of the second and beginning of the 
third century, their opponents appealed to those hymns in which, 
aforetime, Christ had been worshipped as God." — Qllgem. Kirch. 
Hist., I. 523, 2ded. 

17 Metrisch. Offenbar., S. 32. Bull's Defensio fidei Nicaenae, § 
111. c. 2. p. 316, cited by Miinter. 






370 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

was the strain of their devotions. We see in it the heart of 
primitive piety laboring to give utterance to its emotions of 
wonder, love and gratitude, in view of the offices and cha- 
racter of the great Redeemer. 18 It is not found in the later 
collects of the church, because, as is supposed, it was 
thought to resemble, in its measure and antiphonal structure, 
the songs which were used in pagan worship. 

The songs of the primitive Christians were not restricted 
to their public devotions. In their social circles, and around 
their domestic altars, they worshipped God in the sacred song ; 
and, in their daily occupations, they were wont to relieve 
their toil and refresh their spirits, by renewing their favorite 
songs of Zion. Persecuted and afflicted as they often were, 
— in solitary cells of the prison, in the more dismal abodes of 
the mines to which they were doomed, or as wandering ex- 
iles in foreign countries, — still they forgot not to sing the 
Lord's song in the prison or the mine, or in the strange lands 
to which they were driven. 19 

II. Mode of singing in the ancient church. 

Both the Jews in their temple service, and the Greeks in 
their idol worship, were accustomed to sing with the accom- 
paniment of instrumental music. The converts to Christiani- 
ty accordingly must have been familiar with this mode of 
singing. The word, ipalXeiv, which the apostle uses in Eph. 
5: 19, is supposed by critics to indicate that they sang with 

18 The reader will find this hymn in the author's Christian Anti- 
quities, pp. 226, 227. It is an anapaestic ode, with occasional inter- 
changes of spondees and dactyls, which this measure admits. It is 
supposed also to consist of parts which may have been sung in re- 
sponses. The divisions are as follows, — lines, 1 — 10, 11^28, 29 — 45, 
46—63. 

19 Comp. Jamieson, cited in Christian Antiquities, p. 375. It would 
not be difficult to adduce original authorities to this effect, but we must 
confine ourselves more particularly to the devotional psalmody of their 
public worship. 



PSALMODY OF THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 371 

such accompaniments. The same is supposed by some to be 
intimated by the golden harps which John, in the Apocalypse, 
put into the hands of the four-and-twenty elders. But it is 
generally admitted, that the primitive Christians employed no 
instrumental music in their religious worship. Neither Am- 
brose, nor Basil, nor Chrysostom, 20 in the noble encomiums 
which they severally pronounce upon music, make any men- 
tion of instrumental music. Basil condemns it as minister- 
ing only to the depraved passions of men. 21 

It seems from the epistle of Pliny, that the Christians of 
whom he speaks, sang alternately , in responses. The ancient 
hymn from Clement above-mentioned, seems to be construct- 
ed with reference to this method of singing. There is, also, 
an ancient but groundless tradition extant in Socrates, 22 that 
Ignatius was the first to introduce this style of music in the 
church at Antioch. It was familiar to the Jews, who often 
sang responsively in the worship of the temple. In some in- 
stances, the same style of singing may have been practised in 
the primitive church. But responsive singing is generally 
allowed not to have been in common use during the first three 
hundred years of the Christian era. This mode of singing 
was common in the theatres and temples of the Gentiles, and 
for this reason was generally discarded by the primitive Chris- 
tians. 23 It was first practised in the Syrian churches ; it was 
introduced into the Eastern churches by Flavian and Diodo- 
rus, in the middle of the fourth century ; 24 from them it was 
transferred by Ambrose, A. D. 370, to those of the West, and 

20 Ambrose, in Ps. 1. Praef. p. 740. Basil, in Ps. 1. Vol. II. p. 713. 
Chrysostom, in Ps. 41. Vol. V. p. 131. 

21 Horn. 4. .Vol. I. p. 33. 

22 Eccl. Hist. Lib. 6. c. 8. 

23 Theodorus Mopsues. quoted by Nicetas Momin. Thesaur. ortho- 
dox, Lib. 5. c. 30. in Biblioth. Vet. Pat. XXV. p. 161.— Augusti, 
Denkwttrdigkeiten, Vol. V. 278. 

2 * Theodoret, Eccl. Hist. Lib. 2. c. 19. p. 622. 



372 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

it soon came into general use in these churches, under the 
name of. the Ambrosian style of music. 25 

Sacred music must, at this time, have consisted only of a 
few simple airs which could easily be learned, and which by 
frequent repetition, became familiar to all. An ornamented 
and complicated style of music would have been alike in- 
compatible with the circumstances of these Christian wor- 
shippers, and uncongenial with the simplicity of their primi- 
tive forms. 26 

In their songs of Zion, both old and young, men and wo- 
men, bore a part. Their psalmody was the joint act of the 
whole assembly in unison. Such is the testimony of Hilary, 
A. D. 355. 27 Ambrose remarks, that the injunction of the 
apostle, forbidding women to speak in public, relates not to 
singing, " for this is delightful in every age and suited to ev- 
ery sex." 28 The authority of Chrysostom is also to the same 
effect. " It was the ancient custom, as it still is with us, for 
all to come together, and unitedly to join in singing. The 
young and the old, rich and poor, male and female, bond 
and free, all join in one song. . . . All worldly distinctions 
here cease, and the whole congregation form one general 
chorus." 29 

This interesting part of their religious worship was con- 
ducted in the same simplicity which characterized all their 
proceedings. All unitedly sang their familiar psalms and 
hymns ; each was invited, at pleasure, and according to his 
ability to lead their devotions in a sacred song indited by him- 
self. Such, evidently, was the custom in the Corinthian 

25 August. Confess. 9. c. 7. Paulini, Vet. Ambros. p. 4. Comp Au- 
gusti, Denkwiirdig. V. 1. p. 300. 

26 Augusti, Denkwtirdigkeiten, Vol. V. p. 288. 

27 Comment, in Ps. 65. p. 174. 

28 In Ps. 1. Praef.741. Comp. Hexaemeron, Lib. 3. c. 5. p. 42. 

29 Horn. 11. Vol. XII. p. 349. Horn. 36 in 1 Cor. Vol. X. p. 340. 
Comp. Gerbert, Musica Sacra, Lib. 1. § 11, who has collected many 
other authorities to the same effect. 



PSALMODY OF THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 373 

church. Such was still the custom in the age of Tertullian, 
to which reference has already been made. Augustine also 
refers to the same usage, and ascribes to divine inspiration 30 
the talent which they manifested in this extemporaneous 
psalmody. 

Such, so far as we are informed, was the psalmody of the 
early church. It consisted in part of the psalms of David, 
and in part of hymns composed for the purpose, and expres- 
sive of love and praise to God and to Christ. 31 Few in num- 
ber, and sung in rude and simple airs, they yet had wonder- 
ful power over those primitive saints. The sacred song 
inspired their devotions both in the public and private worship 
of God. At their family board it quickened their gratitude to 
God, who gave them their daily bread. It enlivened their 
domestic and social intercourse; it relieved the weariness of 
their daily labor ; it cheered them in solitude, comforted them 
in affliction and supported them under persecution. "Go 
where you will," says Jerome, '- the ploughman at his plough 
sings his joyful hallelujahs, the busy mower regales himself 
with his psalms, and the vine-dresser is singing one of the 
songs of David. Such are our songs, — our love songs, as they 
are called — the solace of the shepherd in his solitude, and of 
the husbandman in his toil." 32 Fearless of reproach, of per- 
secution, and of death, they continued, in the face of their 
enemies, to sing their sacred songs in the streets and market- 
places, and at the martyr's stake. Eusebius declares himself 
an eye-witness to the fact, that under their persecutions in 
Thebais, "they continued to their latest breath to sing psalms 
and hymns, and thanksgivings to the God of heaven." 33 And 
the same is related of many others among the early martyrs. 

30 Cited by Miinter, Metrisch. Offenbar. The sentiments of Gro- 
tius also are to the same effect. 

31 Neander, Allgem. Kirch. Hist. I. S. 523, 2d ed. 

32 Ep. 17. ad Marcellam. Cited in Arnold's Abbildung, S. 174. 

33 Eccl. Hist. 8. c. 9. 

32 



374 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

We are informed by Chrysostom, that it was an ancient cus- 
tom to sing the 140th psalm every evening; and that the 
Christians continued through life the constant singing of this 
psalm. 34 The song of Zion was a sacred fountain, which, 
like living waters in a desert, sustained in this barren wil- 
derness the growth and vigor of primitive piety, and over- 
spread with perpetual verdure the vineyard of the Lord. 
On this point the sentiments of Herder are peculiarly interest- 
ing; and no one can speak with more authority respecting 
the psalmody of the ancient church. Speaking of the ear- 
liest hymns of the Latin church, after remarking that they 
exhibit little poetic talent or classic taste, he adds, " But who 
can deny their influence and power over the soul ? These 
sacred hymns of many hundred years' standing, and yet at 
every repetition still new and unimpaired in interest — what a 
blessing have they been to poor human nature! They go 
with the solitary into his cell, and attend the afflicted in dis- 
tress, in want, and to the grave. While singing these, one 
forgets his toil, and his fainting, sorrowful spirit soars in hea- 
venly joys to another world. Back to earth he comes to la- 
bor, to toil, to sutfer in silence and to conquer. How rich 
the boon, how great the power of these hymns." 35 He pro- 
ceeds to say, that there is in these an efficacy and power which 
lighter songs, which philosophy itself can never have; a 
power which is not ascribable to anything new or striking 
in sentiment, or powerful in expression. And then raises 
the question, " whence then have they this mighty power 1 

34 Chrysost. in Ps. 140. Tom. 5. p. 427. 

35 Augustine gives the following account of the power of this 
music over him on the occasion of his baptism. " Oh how freely was 
I made to weep by these hymns and spiritual songs ; transported by 
the voices of the congregation sweetly singing. The melody of their 
voices filled my ear, and divine truth was poured into my heart. 
Then burned the sacred flame of devotion in my soul, and gushing 
tears flowed from my eyes, as well they might." — Confess. Lib. 9. 
c. 9. P . 118. 



PSALMODY OF THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 375 

what is it that so moves us?" To which he replies, sim- 
plicity and truth. " Embodying the great and simple truths 
of religion, they speak the sentiment of a universal creed — 
they are the expression of one heart and one faith. The 
greater part are suitable to be sung on all occasions, and daily 
to be repeated. Others are adapted to certain festivals ; and as 
these return in endless succession, so the sacred song perpet- 
ually repeats the Christian faith. Though rude, and void of 
refined taste, they all speak to the heart ; and, by ceaseless re- 
petition, sink deep the impress of truth. Like these, the 
sacred song should ever be the simple offering of nature, an 
incense of sweet odors, perpetually recurring, with a fra- 
grance that surfers no abatement." 36 Such is the simple 
power of truth wrought into the soul by the hallowed devo- 
tions of the sanctuary. Striking the deepest principles of 
our nature, stirring the strongest passions of the heart, and 
mingling with our most tender recollections and dearest 
hopes, is it strange that the simple truths and rude air of the 
sacred song should deeply move us? So presented, they 
only grow in interest by continued repetition. And in the 
lapse of years, these time-hallowed associations do but sink 
the deeper in the soul : 

"Time but the impression stronger makes, 
As streams their channels deeper wear." 

III. Changes in the psalmody of the church. 

In the course of a few centuries from the fourth onward 
several variations were introduced in the mode of performing 
this part of public worship, the effect of which was to with- 
draw the people from any direct participation in it, and to 
destroy in a great degree its moral power. 

1. The first of these changes has been already mentioned, 
singing alternately by responses. This was introduced into 

36 Briefe zur Beforderung der Humanitat. 7. Samml. S. 28 sq. 
Cited by Augusti, Denkwttrdigkeiten, Vol. V. S. 296,297. 



376 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

the Syriac churches, afterwards into the Eastern church, and 
finally, into the Western, by Ambrose. In this the congre- 
gation still bore some part, all uniting in the chorus, and 
singing the responses. 

2. The appointment of singers as a distinct class of officers 
in the church, for this part of religious worship, marks another 
alteration in the psalmody of the church. These were first 
appointed in the fourth century. But the people continued, 
for a century or more, to enjoy their ancient privilege of all 
singing together. 

3. Various restrictions were from time to time laid upon 
the use of hymns of human composition, in distinction from 
the inspired psalms of David. Heretics of every name had 
their sacred hymns, suited to their own religious belief, which 
had great effect in propagating their errors. To resist their 
encroachments, the established church was driven to the ne- 
cessity, either of cultivating and improving its own psalmody, 
or of opposing its authority to stay the progress of this evil. 
The former was the expedient of Ambrose, Hilary, Gregory 
Nazianzen, Chrysostom, Augustine, etc. But the other al- 
ternative in turn was also attempted. The churches by ec- 
clesiastical authority were restricted to the use of the Psalter 
and other canonical songs of the Scriptures. All hymns of 
merely human composition were prohibited, as of a dangerous 
tendency and unsuitable to the purposes of public worship. 
The synod ofLaodicea, A. D. 344 — 346, c. 59, passed a de- 
cree to that effect. The decree was not, however, fully en- 
forced. But this and similar efforts on the part of the clergy, 
had the effect to discourage the use of such religious songs. 
The Arians of that age also opposed these ancient sacred 
hymns, for a different reason, and cultivated a higher style of 
sacred music. 

4. The introduction of instrumental music. The tenden- 
cy of this was to secularize the music of the church, and to 
encourage singing by a choir. Such musical accompani- 



PSALMODY OF THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 377 

merits were gradually introduced ; but they can hardly be as- 
signed to a period earlier than the fifth and sixth centuries. 
Organs were unknown in church until the eighth or ninth 
century. Previous to this they had their place in the theatre, 
rather than in the church. They were never regarded with 
favor in the Eastern church, and were vehemently opposed in 
many places in the West. In Scotland no organ is allowed, 
to this day, except in a few Episcopal churches. " In the 
English convocation, held A. D. 1562, in queen Elizabeth's 
time, for settling of the liturgy, the retaining of organs was 
carried only by a casting vote." 

5. The introduction of profane, secular music into the church 
was one of the principal means of corrupting the psalmody of 
the church. An artificial, theatrical style of music, having no 
affinity to the worship of God, began to take the place of 
those solemn airs which before had inspired the devotions of 
His people. The music of the theatre was transferred to the 
church; which, accordingly, became the scene of theatrical 
pomp and display, rather than the house of prayer and of 
praise, to inspire, by its appropriate and solemn rites, the 
spiritual worship of God. The consequences of indulging 
this depraved taste for secular music in the church are exhibi- 
ted by Neander in the following extract. " We have to re- 
gret, that both in the Eastern and the Western church, their 
sacred music had already assumed an artificial and theatrical 
character, and was so far removed from its original simplicity, 
that even in the fourth century, the abbot Pambo of Egypt 
complained that heathen melodies, [accompanied as it 6eems 
with the action of the hands and the feet,] had been intro- 
duced into their church psalmody." 37 Isidorus of Pelusium, 
also complained of the theatrical singing, especially of the 
women, which, instead of inducing penitence for sin, tended 

37 MeAatdovoiv uofiaza xal pv&fiuovoiv r\yovg osiovoi ysiQag xal/u€- 
Tafiaivovot (fidXlovoi ?) 7iudag. — Scriptores Ecclesiastici, De Mu- 
sica, T. 1. 1784. p. 3. 

32* 



378 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

much more to awaken sinful desires. 38 Jerome, also, in re- 
marking upon Eph. 5 : 19, says, " May all hear it whose 
business it is to sing in the church. Not with the voice, but 
with the heart, we sing praises to God. Not like the come- 
dians should they raise their sweet and liquid notes to enter- 
tain the assembly with theatrical songs and melodies in the 
church ; but the fear of God, piety, and the knowledge of the 
Scriptures, should inspire our songs. Then would not the 
voice of the singers, but the utterance of the divine word, ex- 
pel the evil spirit from those who like Saul are possessed with 
it. But instead of this, that same spirit is invited rather to 
the possession of those who have converted the house of God 
into a pagan theatre." 39 

The assembly continued to bear some part in the psalmody 
of the church, even after this had become a cultivated 
theatrical art, for the practice of which, the singers were ap- 
pointed, and trained as a distinct order in the church. The 
congregation may have continued for a time to join in the 
chorus or in responses. But is it conceivable that a promiscu- 
ous assembly could unite in such theatrical music as is here 
the subject of complaint t Was not music, executed in this 
manner, an art which must require in its performers a de- 
gree of skill altogether superior to that which all the members 
of a congregation could be expected to possess? 

6. The practice of sacred music, as an ornamental, culti- 
vated art, took it yet more completely from the people. It 
became an art which only a few could learn. The many, 
instead of uniting their hearts and their voices in the songs 
of Zion, could only sit coldly by as spectators. A promis- 
cuous assembly, very obviously, could not be expected to 
bear a prominent part in such theatrical music as is here the 
subject of consideration. They might, indeed, unite in some 

38 Isidor. Pelus. C. 1. Ep. 90. Biblioth. Vet. Pat. Vol. VII. p. 543. 

39 Comment, in Ep. Eph. Lib. 3. c. 5. T. 4. p. 387. ed. Martianay. 
Cited in Allgem. Kirch. Gesch. II. S. 681, 2d ed. 



PSALMODY OP THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 879 

simple chorus, and are generally understood not to have been 
entirely excluded from all participation in the psalmody of 
the church until the sixth or seventh century. Gregory the 
Great was instrumental in bringing singing schools into re- 
pute, and after him Charlemagne. Organs came about this 
time into use. But in the early periods of the Christian 
church, instrumental music was not in use in religious wor- 
ship. 

7. The clergy eventually claimed the right of performing 
the sacred music as a privilege exclusively their own. This 
expedient shut out the people from any participation in this 
delightful part of public worship. 

Finally, the more effectually to exclude the people, the 
singing was in Latin. Where that was not the vernacular 
tongue, this rule was of necessity an effectual bar to the par- 
ticipation of the people in this part of public worship. Be- 
sides, the doctrine was industriously propagated that the 
Latin was the appropriate language of devotion, which be- 
came not the profane lips of the laity, in these religious so- 
lemnities ; but only those of the clergy, who had been con- 
secrated to the service of the sanctuary. The Reformation 
again restored to the people their ancient and inestimable 
right. But in the Roman Catholic church, it is still divided 
between the chants of the priests and the theatrical perfor- 
mances of the choir, which effectually pervert the devotional 
ends of sacred music. 



REMARKS. 

1. To accomplish, in the happiest manner, the devotional 
ends of sacred music, the congregation should unitedly join 
in it. 

In advancing an opinion so much opposed to the taste of 
the age, the writer has no expectation that it will be received 
with the consideration which, in his opinion, its importance 



380 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

demands. For he cannot resist the conviction, that in sep- 
arating the congregation generally from a participation in 
this delightful part of public worship, we have taken the 
most effectual measure, as did the Catholic clergy in the 
period which has passed under review, to destroy the devo- 
tional influence of sacred music. What, may we ask, was 
the secret of the magic charm of sacred music, in the early 
Christian church 1 Whence its mighty influence over those 
primitive saints 1 It was, that the great truths of religion 
were embodied in their psalmody, and set to such simple airs 
that all could blend their voices and their hearts in the sacred 
song; and, though they may have exhibited little of what 
is denominated musical taste, or of the symphonies of a 
modern oratorio, they offered unto God the melody of the 
heart, by far the noblest praise. Their sacred songs became, 
as we have seen, the ballads of the people, 40 sung at all times, 
and upon every occasion. Religious truth became inwrought 
into the very soul of these Christians by their sacred songs. 
It entered, not only into their public devotions, but into 
their family worship, their domestic pleasures, and their so- 
cial entertainments. Thus religious truth addressed itself 
to the hearts of the people in a manner the most persuasive 
possible. It became associated, both with the most endear- 
ing recollections of the heart, and its most hallowed asso- 
ciations. Will the music of our churches, however skilfully 
played upon the organ, or sweetly sung by a few select 
voices, ever so move the heart, and mould the character of 
the whole society ? No ; like the cold corruscations of the 
Northern lights, it does but amuse and delight the spectator 
for a while, and then passes away, leaving the bosom dark 
and cheerless as before. But when the music of the church 
is let down from the orchestra to the congregation below, 

40 One has wisely said, " Let me make the ballads of the people, 
and I care not who makes their laws." But connected with religion 
their power is immensely increased. 



PSALMODY OF THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 381 

and runs with its quickening influence, from man to man, 
until all feel their soul ascending in the song which they 
unitedly raise to God, then it is that the 

" Heart grows warm with holy fire, 
And kindles with a pure desire." 

No one can witness the worship of the churches in Ger- 
many, without being struck with the devotional influence of 
their psalmody. They are a nation of singers. Rarely is 
one seen in the church, whether old or young, who does not 
join in the song ; 41 and with an evident interest which it has 
not been the good fortune of the writer often to witness, or 
to experience in the churches of America. In our country 
this subject is encompassed with intrinsic difficulties which 
we pass without remark. But were it possible ever to make 
the modification under consideration in our church-music, 
even at the expense of the musical skill and talent which 
are now displayed, we must believe that much would be gain- 
ed to the devotional influence of our sacred music. What 

41 The singing is the most devotional part of the religious worship 
of the Lutheran and Evangelical churches of Germany, and in pro- 
portion to the other parts of worship is extended to an inordinate 
length. For example, on one occasion in the ordinary services of the 
Sabbath, the singing before sermon was observed, by the writer, to oc- 
cupy fifty minutes. In the course of this time, two prayers were of- 
fered, neither of which occupied the space of three minutes, and two 
portions of Scripture were read, which did not occupy more than five 
minutes. All the prayers, including the litany, did not exceed ten 
minutes in length ; while the singing employed near an hour. The 
prayers are liturgical forms to a great extent, briefly rehearsed at dif- 
ferent times by the clergyman, in which the congregation seem not 
to be deeply interested. The singing is the act of the congregation 
unitedly, with which they are never weary, with which, I had almost 
said, they never appear to be satisfied. And yet the hymns in com- 
mon use have but very humble claims to consideration for the poetic 
taste which they display. In this respect they would hardly equal the 
antiquated collect of Tate and Brady. With the Divine Songs of 
Watts, and with our lyric poetry generally, they bear no comparison. 



382 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

though, in humbler strains, and more simple airs, the church- 
es raise to God their sacred songs of praise? What if some 
discordant notes occasionally disturb the harmony of the mu- 
sic? if still they do but fulfil the apostolical injunction, sing- 
ing and making melody in their hearts to the Lord, the no- 
blest, the best, the only true end, of sacred music is accom- 
plished. Such are the strains which He who inspires the songs 
of heaven delights most to hear : 

" Compared with these, Italian trills are tame ; 
The tickled ears no heart-felt raptures raise." 

2. Christian psalmody was one of the principal means of 
promoting the devotions of the primitive church. 

Enough remains on record in relation to this subject, to 
show what interest these venerable saints and martyrs had in 
their sacred songs. Enough, to show what power their psalm- 
ody possessed to confirm their faith, to inspire their devotions, 
to bring them nigh to God, and to arm them with more than 
mortal courage for the fiery conflict to which they were sum- 
moned in defence of their faith. Has this most interesting 
and important part of religious worship its just influence with 
us ? Is its quickening power shed abroad over our assem- 
blies, like the spirit of heavenly grace, warming the cold heart 
into spiritual life, and reviving its languid affections, as if with 
a fresh anointing from on high ? 

3. Christian psalmody affords the happiest means of en 
forcing the doctrinal truths of religion. 

Reason with man, and you do but address his understand- 
ing; you gain, it may be, his cold convictions. Embody the 
truth in a creed, or confession of faith; to this he may also 
yield assent, and remain as unmoved as before. But express 
it in the sacred song. Let it mingle with his devotions in the 
sanctuary, and in the family ; let his most endeared associa- 
tions cluster around it, as the central point, not only of his 
faith, but of his hopes, his joys ; and what before was a spec- 



PSALMODY OF THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 383 

ulative belief, has become his living sentiment, — the govern- 
ing principle both of the understanding and the heart. The 
single book of psalms and hymns, therefore, does unspeaka- 
bly more to form the doctrinal sentiments of men, than all 
the formularies, creeds, and confessions of polemics and di- 
vines. " The one," says Augusti, " is chiefly for the minis- 
ter ; the other is in the hands of the people, and is, as you 
may say, his daily creed.' 942 The heart, in religion, as in ev- 
erything else, governs the understanding. The sacred song 
that wins the one, fails not also to convince and to control 
the other. With great propriety, therefore, has the hymn- 
book long been styled, the Layman's Bible. 43 

Every religious denomination, accordingly, has its hymn- 
book ; and in ancient times the same was true of every reli- 
gious sect. The spiritual songs of the primitive Christians 
were almost exclusively of a doctrinal character. "In fact, 
almost all the prayers, doxologies, and hymns of the ancient 
church are nothing else than prayers and supplications to the 
triune God, or to Jesus Christ. They were generally alto- 
gether doctrinal. The prayers and psalms, of merely a mo- 
ral character, which the modern church has in great abun- 
dance, in the ancient, were altogether unknown." 44 And yet 
modern Christians have not been inattentive to this mode of 
defending their faith. Their different collections of psalms 
and hymns abound with those that are expressive merely of 

42 DenkAvQrdigkeiten, V. S. 411. 

43 Augusti, Denkwttrdigkeiten, V. S. 411 ; also, 277. Augustine 
recognizes the same sentiment, as follows : — Cum reminiscor lachry- 
mas meas quas fudi ad cantus ecclesiae tuae in primordiis recupera- 
tae fidei meae, et nunc ipso quod moveor, non cantu, sed rebus quae 
cantantur, cum liquida voce et convenientissima modulatione cantan- 
tur, magnam instituti hujus utilitatem rursus agnosco. Tamen cum 
mihi accidit utme amplius cantus quam res quae canitur moveat, poe- 
naliter me peccare confiteor, et tunc mallem non audire cantantem. 
— Confess. L. 10. c. 33. Vol. 1. p. 141. 

44 Augusti, DenkwUrdigkeiten, Vol. V. p. 417. 



384 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

points of doctrine, at the expense, often, of all poetical im- 
agery or expression. 45 

4. Christian psalmody is one of the most efficient means 
of promulgating a religious system among a people. 

This was one of the earliest and most successful expedients 
for spreading the ancient heresies of the church. Bardasa- 
nes, the famous Syrian Gnostic, in the latter part of the se- 
cond century, made this the principal means of propagating 
his sentiments. He composed songs expressive of the tenets 
which he would inculcate, and adapted them to music, to be 
sung by the people. His son, Harmonius, followed the ex- 
ample of his father ; and such, according to Augusti, " was 
the influence of their efforts, that the Syrian church was well 
nigh overrun with their errors." 46 And not only the Gnos- 
tics, but the Manicheans, the Donatists, and almost every he- 
retical sect, employed, with surprising success, the same 
means of promulgating their tenets. Taught by their exam- 
ple, the orthodox finally sought, in the same manner, to resist 
the progress of their errors. Such were the efforts of Eph- 
raem the Syrian, Hilary, Augustine, and others. 47 

Luther well understood this method of propagating truth 
and refuting error, and employed it with a skilful hand. 

45 For example, the successive stanzas of one of the hymns in the 
Lutheran collection, begin, each, with one of the terms at the begin- 
ning of the creed. 1. I believe in God the Father, etc. 2. I.believe 
in God the Son, etc. 3. I believe in God the Holy Ghost, etc. 

46 Composuit carmina et ea modulationibus aptabit, finxit psalmos 
induxitque metra, et mensuris ponderibusque distribuit voces. Ita 
propinavit sirnplicibus venenum dulcedine temperatum ; aegroti quip- 
pe cibum recusabant salubrem. Davidem imitatus est, ut ejus pul- 
chritudine ornaretur ejusque similitudine commendaretur. Centum 
et quinquaginta composuit hie quoque psalmos. Ephraem Syrus, in 
Hymn 53, p. 553. Comp. Sozomen, h. e. 3. c. 16. Theodor. Lib. 4. 
c. 29; also, 1. c. 22. — Denkwiirdigkeiten,' Vol. V. S. 272, 273. 

47 Augusti, DenkwQrdigkeiten, Vol. V. S. 275, 276, 414, 415. For 
further information on this point, see J. Andr. Schmidt. De modo 
propagandi religionem per carmina. Helmst. 1720. 4to. 



PSALMODY OF THE PRIMITIVE CHIJRCH. 385 

For his great work he possessed remarkable qualifications, 
which are seldom united in one man. Among his varied 
accomplishments, not the least important were his poetical 
and musical talents. He was taught music with the first 
rudiments of his native language; and when, as a wander- 
ing minstrel, he earned his daily bread by exercising his mu- 
sical powers, in singing before the doors of the rich, in the 
streets of Magdeburg and Eisenach, he was as truly preparing; 
for the future Reformer, as when, a retired monk in the 
cloister at Erfurt, he was storing his mind with the truths of 
revelation, with which to refute the errors and expose the 
delusions of papacy. One of his earliest efforts at reform 
was the publication of a psalm-book, A. D. 1524, com- 
posed and set to music chiefly by himself. 48 The songs of 
Luther confirmed the Christian's faith and soothed the suf- 
ferings of the martyr at the stake. One of his earliest 
hymns he consecrated to commemorate the martyrs of Brus- 
sels ; and the whole reformed church felt the sustaining in- 
fluence of this single song which we give in the margin. 49 

43 This psalm-book is usually ascribed to Luther, though it bears 
not his name. It contained eight psalms, of which, however, but 
one bears his name. But he published in 1525, two editions, the first 
containing sixteen, and the other forty. In the collection of sacred 
music in use by the Lutheran churches in Germany, consisting of 
two hundred and fifty-three tunes, twenty-jive are ascribed to Luther, 
either as the author of them, or as having been revised by him, and 
adapted to the use of the church. The authorship of a few is doubt- 
ful, though they are assigned to that age. 

49 Flung on the heedless winds 
Or on the waters cast, 
Their ashes shall be watched 
And gathered at the last. 
And from that scattered dust, 
Around us and abroad 
Shall spring a plenteous seed 
Of witnesses for God. 

Jesus hath now received 
Their latest living breath, — 
33 



386 



THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 



His associate Hans Sach cooperated with him by publishing 
in 1523, the " Nightingale of Wittcmbcrg." His efforts 
at an earlier period at Nuremberg had according to D'Au- 
bigne, great influence in promoting the work of the Reform- 
ation. " From a humble workshop situated at one of the 
gates of the imperial city of Nuremberg proceeded sounds 
that resounded through all Germany preparing the minds of 
men for a new era, and everywhere endearing to the people 
the great revolution that was then in progress. The spiritual 
songs of Hans Sachs, his Bible in verse powerfully assisted 
this work. It would, perhaps, be difficult to say to which it 
was most indebted, the Prince, Elector of Saxony adminis- 
trator of the empire, or the shoemaker of Nuremberg !" 

The psalms of the church, in the time of the Reforma- 
tion, were wholly of a doctrinal character. " Hymns merely 
inculcating moral truths, which are so abundant in modern 
collections, were unknown at this early period. As now, in 
symbols and catechisms, we have an abstract of the Chris- 
tian faith, so then, was the substance of the fundamental 
doctrines of the Christian faith embodied in their divine 
songs." 50 Weapons so simple were employed with surpris- 
ing effect by the great Reformer. Even his enemies ac- 
knowledged their hated power. " These hymns, many of 
which are manufactured in Luther's own laboratory, and sung 
in the vernacular tongue of the people, — it is wonderful what 
power they have in propagating the doctrines of Luther ! 
Some of them doctrinal in their character, others imitating 
devotional psalms, they repeat and blazon abroad the faults 

Yet vain is Satan's boast 

Of victory in their death. 

Still — still — though dead they speak, 

And trumpet tongued proclaim 

To many a wakening land, 

The one availing name. 

Cited from D'Aubigni. 
50 Augusti, DenkwQrdigkeiten, Vol. V. S. 287. 



PSALMODY OF THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 387 

of the church, whether real or imaginary." 51 Such is the 
mighty power of sacred psalmody in propagating the Chris- 
tian faith : 

" These weapons of our holy war, 
Of what almighty force they are !" 

Have our missionaries employed, with due diligence and skill, 
this mode of warfare, and applied these weapons with suffi- 
cient success to the assault upon the strongholds of Satan 1 
5. Is not the influence of sacred music too much over- 
looked as a means of moral discipline, in our efforts to ed- 
ucate the young, and to reform the vicious? 

51 Cantilenae vernaculo idiomate, quarura plurimae ex ipsius Lu- 
theri offieina sunt profectae, mirum est, quara promoveant rem Lu- 
theranam. Quaedam dogmaticae, aliae aemulantur psalmos pios ; — 
recitant exagitantque Christianorum vitia sive vera, sive ficta. Thom- 
as de Jesii, (Didacus Davila) Thesaur. sapient, divinae, T. 2. p. 541. 
Luther inserted in the title-page of his hymn-book, published at Wit- 
tenberg, in 1 543, the following stanza : 

" Viel falscher Meister jetzt Lieder dichten, 
Siche dich far, und lern' sie recht richten. 
Wo Gott hin bauet sein' Kirch' und sein Wort, 
Da will der Teufel seyn mit Trug und Mord." 

Avgusti, Denfaciirdigkeiten, Vol. V. S. 287. 
The influence of congregational singing in England at an early 
period in the reformation is noticed by bishop Jewel. " A change 
now appears visible among the people ; which nothing promotes more 
than inviting them to sing psalms. This was begun in one church 
in London, and did quickly spread itself, not only through the city, 
but in neighboring places. Sometimes at Paul's Cross there will be 
six thousand singing together." By the Act of Uniformity, 1548, 
the practice of using any psalm openly " in churches, chapels, orato- 
rios and other places" was authorized. At length, after being popu- 
lar for a while in France and Germany, among both Roman Catho- 
lics and Protestants, as psalmody came to be discountenanced by the 
former as an open declaration of Lutheranism, so, in England, psalmr 
singing was soon abandoned to the Puritans, and became almost a pe- 
culiarity of Nonconformity." — Condor's View of all Religions, p. 
321. Note. 



388 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

Has it the place which its great importance demands in 
our primary schools and higher seminaries of learning 1 In 
Germany the child is universally taught to sing in the pri- 
mary school. Singing is as much a part of the instruction 
in these schools as arithmetic or grammar. This is one of 
the blessings which they owe to their great reformer. " Next 
to theology," said Luther, " it is to Music that I give the 
highest place, and the greatest honor. 52 A schoolmaster 
ought to know how to sing ; without this qualification I 
would have nothing to do with him." Can a more amiable 
provision be made for the future happiness of the child than 
to train his heart and ear for the delights of music by teach- 
ing his infant lips to sing the praises of his God and Saviour? 

In our admirable system of prison discipline, has it its 
proper place among the reforming influences which are em- 
ployed to quicken the conscience of the hardened transgres- 
sor, and turn him from the error of his ways ? 53 Has the 
power of sacred music been sufficiently employed to restore 
the insane] We know the magic power of David's harp to 
tame the ferocious and frenzied spirit of Saul ; will not the 
same means have a similar effect, to soothe and to tranquil- 
ize the poor maniac's bewildered soul, and to restore him 
to his right mind 1 We submit these inquiries respectfully 
to the careful consideration of the reader, and leave the sub- 
ject for the discussion of abler pens. 

Finally. This subject suggests the importance of simpli- 
city in church psalmody. 

Let our sacred songs be simple in their poetry. Such is 

52 Ich gebe nach der Theologia, der Musica den nahesten Locum 
und hochste Ehre. Opp. W. 22. S. 2255.— Cited by UJiubigni. 

53 " I always keep these little rogues singing at their work," said 
a distinguished overseer of an institution for juvenile offenders, in 
Berlin, " I always keep them singing, for while the children sing, the 
devil cannot come among them at all ; he can only sit out doors there 
and growl ; but if they stop singing, in comes the devil." — Prof. 
Stowe, on Com. Schools, p. 26. 



PSALMODY OF THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 389 

the poetry of nature, of devotion, of the Scriptures. If we 
would have the songs of Zion come from the heart, the off- 
spring of pure and deep emotion, if we would have them stir 
the souls of the whole assembly for heart-felt, sympathetic 
worship, they must be indited in the simplicity of pure devo- 
tion. And let the notes of sacred music have the same de- 
lightful simplicity. Let them be adapted to Congregational 
singing. Let all be trained to sing as early and as univer- 
sally as they are taught to read ; and if we would have the 
soul ascending in the song, let the whole assembly join in the 
solemn hymn which they raise to God. The primitive church 
knew nothing of a choir, set apart and withdrawn from the 
congregation, for the exclusive performance of this delightful 
part of public worship. " The Bible knows nothing of a wor- 
ship conducted by a few, in behalf of a silent multitude; but 
calls upon everything that hath breath to join in this divine 
employ." Have we done well, then, in substituting for the 
voice of all the people in the praise of God, the voice of a few 
in a choir? For the sweet simplicity of ancient melodies, 
hallowed by a thousand sacred associations, have we wisely 
introduced the musical display of modern airs? Have we 
done well in substituting, even for the rude simplicity of our 
fathers, if such you please to call it, the profane and secular 
airs of some modern harmonies ? After admiring those noble 
portraits of the great and revered reformer which adorn the 
galleries of his native country, clad in the easy, simple and 
appropriate costume of his age, who would endure the sight 
of that venerable form dressed out in the modern style, so trim 
and sleek, of a fashionable fop? With the same wretched 
taste do we mar, in attempting to mend the music of the 
great masters of another age, by conforming it to the style of 
the present. 

It is exceedingly gratifying to observe in the public jour- 
nals and current literature of the day, the return of the pub- 
lic mind to a better taste in sacred music ; and to notice that 
33* 



390 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

several of the ablest masters in the country have entered in 
earnest upon the work of reform, Heaven speed their work, 
and hasten on the day, when, with sweet accord of hearts and 
voices attuned to the worship of God, all shall join in sing- 
ing to his praise in the great congregation. 






CHAPTER XIII. 

HOMILIES IN THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 
Under this head we shall direct our attention, 

I. To the discourses of Christ and of the apostles. 

II. To the homilies of the fathers in the Greek church. 

III. To those of the fathers in the Latin church. 

I. The discourses of Christ and of the apostles. 

The reading of the Scriptures, in connection with remarks 
and exhortations, constituted a part of the social worship of 
the primitive church. The apostles, wherever they went, 
frequented the synagogues of the Jews, where, after the read- 
ing of the Scriptures, an invitation was given to any one to 
remark upon what had been read. In this way they took oc- 
casion to speak of Christ and his doctrines to their brethren. 
Their addresses were occasional and apposite ; varied, with 
consummate skill, according to the circumstances of the hear- 
er, and addressed, with great directness and pungency, to the 
understanding and the heart. 

In the Acts, we have brief notices of several of the address- 
es of Peter, and of Paul, and of one from Stephen, from 
which we may gather a distinct impression of their style of 
address. The first from Peter was before the disciples, who, 
to the number of one hundred and twenty, were assembled 
to elect a substitute in the place of the traitor, Judas. Acts 1: 
15. It is calculated to soothe the minds of his hearers, op- 



392 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

pressed by the melancholy end of this apostate, by showing 
that all had transpired according to the prediction of God's 
word, and to fulfil the counsel of his will. 

The second was delivered on the occasion of the shedding 
abroad of the Holy Spirit on the day of Pentecost. Acts 2: 14. 
After refuting the malicious charge of having drunk to ex- 
cess, he proceeds to show from the Scriptures, that all which 
the multitude saw was only the fulfilment of ancient prophe- 
cy ; he charges them with having crucified the Lord Jesus 
Christ, whom God had exalted as a Prince and a Saviour, to 
give repentance unto Israel, and remission of sins. Such was 
the force of his cutting reproof, that three thousand were 
brought to believe in Christ crucified. 

His third address, on the occasion of healing the lame man 
in the temple, Acts iii, was of the same character, and attend- 
ed with a similar result. His fourth and fifth were delivered 
before the Sanhedrim, in defence of himself and the apostles. 
Acts 4: 7. 5: 29. Of these we only know that the subject 
was the same as in the preceding, — Christ, wickedly crucified 
and slain by the Jews, and raised from the dead for the salva- 
tion of men. Before Cornelius the centurion, Acts 6: 34, 
after explaining the miraculous manner in which his Jewish 
prejudices had been overruled, and how he had been led to 
see the comprehensive nature of the gospel system, he gives 
an outline of its great truths, attested by the Scriptures, re- 
lating to Christ, to the resurrection and the final judgment. 
All these discourses manifest the same boldness and fervency 
of spirit, and are directed to produce the same result — repent- 
ance for sin, and faith in Christ. 

Stephen, in his defence before the Sanhedrim, Acts vii, 
traces the history of God's dispensations to the Jews, and of 
their treatment of his servants the prophets, whom they had 
rejected and slain, and charges them with having finally con- 
summated their guilt by becoming the betrayers and murder- 
ers of the holy and just One. Paul, in his address at Anti- 






HOMILIES IN THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 393 

och, pursues the same style ; showing how, from age to age, 
God had been unfolding his purpose to give salvation to men 
by Jesus Christ, and finally bringing the whole to bear with 
tremendous force in its application to his hearers. " Be- 
ware, therefore, lest that come upon you which is spoken 
in the prophets ; ' Behold, ye despisers, and wonder and 
perish ; for I work a work in your day, a work which ye shall 
in no wise believe, though a man declare it unto you.' " 
Acts 13 : 40, 41. Time would fail us to follow the apostle 
in his masterly address before the Areopagus at Athens, Acts 
17: 22, — to attend to his affecting interview with the elders of 
Ephesus at Miletus, Acts 20 : 18, and to his admirable de- 
fence before the Jews, and before Festus, and Agrippa the 
king, Acts xxii, xxiii, xxvi. With the Greeks he reasoned 
as a Greek, making no reference to the Jewish Scriptures; 
but, from their own poets, and the natural principles of phi- 
losophy and of religion, convincing them of the vanity of their 
superstitions. With the Jews he reasoned as a Jew, out of their 
own sacred books, and testified to all, both Jew and Greek, 
the great doctrines of repentance, and faith in Christ, the 
resurrection of the dead, and the general judgment. 

The addresses of the apostles are remarkable at once for 
their simplicity and their power. None ever preached with 
such effect as they. Wherever they went converts were 
multiplied and churches reared up, in defiance of all oppo- 
sition, and in the face of every conceivable discouragement. 
Strong in faith and mighty in the Scriptures, these few men, 
in a few short years, were instrumental in making greater 
conquests over the kingdom of Satan, and winning more 
souls to Christ, than all the missionaries of all Christendom 
have gained in half a century. Whence, then, this mighty 
power 1 Without venturing into this interesting field of in- 
quiry, we may offer a few suggestions in relation to the char- 
acteristics of the apostles' preaching. 

1. They insisted chiefly on a few cardinal points, com- 
prising the great truths of the Christian religion. 



394 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

Christ, and him crucified; repentance; faith in Christ 
and the remission of sins ; the resurrection ; and the general 
judgment ; — these are the great points to which all their ad- 
dresses are directed. The simplicity of these truths gave a 
like simplicity to their preaching. Beaming full on their 
own minds, and occupying their whole soul, these momen- 
tous truths fell from their lips with tremendous power upon 
the hearts and consciences of their hearers. No power of 
oratory or strength of argument could equal the awful con- 
ception which they had of what they preached. They could, 
therefore, only speak in the fulness of their hearts, and with 
earnestness and simplicity, what they had heard, and seen, 
and felt. The word thus spoken was quick and powerful ; 
it cut to the heart ; it converted the soul. 

2. Their full conviction of the truths which they preach- 
ed, gave directness and pungency to their addresses. 

They preached no cunningly-devised fables. No refined 
speculations or doubtful disputations employed their speech. 
But, honest in their sacred cause, and much impressed with 
what they said, and anxious only to fasten the same impres- 
sion in the minds of their hearers, they spoke with honest 
earnestness, the convictions of their inmost soul. These 
strong convictions gave them the noblest eloquence, the elo- 
quence of truth and of nature. Pietas est quod distrtum 
facit, says the great Roman orator. Piety inspires true elo- 
quence. This was the secret of their eloquence. They 
felt the high importance of what they said ; and, springing 
from the heart, their exhortations touched the hearts of those 
to whom they spoke. 

3. Their preaching was wholly scriptural ; based on the 
Scriptures, and restricted to the single purpose of making 
manifest the truths of God's word. 

They preached not themselves, but Jesus Christ, in the 
very character in which he is revealed in the word of God, 
and to which all the prophets have given testimony. Stand- 



HOMILIES IN THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 395 

ing thus in the counsel of the Lord, they had strong ground 
of defence, and holy boldness in declaring what God had 
said. Their preaching was, accordingly, in the demonstra- 
tion of the Spirit and of power. Armed with this energy di- 
vine, is it wonderful that the word spoken had this quicken- 
ing power ? 

4. The contradiction and persecution which they con- 
tinually experienced, gave peculiar earnestness and power to 
their ministrations. 

One who, like Paul, could say, " None of these things 
move me, neither count I my life dear unto myself, so that 
I might finish my course with joy and the ministry which I 
have received of the Lord Jesus, to testify the gospel of the 
grace of God," Acts 20 : 24; — such a man only waxes bolder 
in the truth by all the conflicts to which he is called ; and 
summons up unwonted powers in proclaiming the gospel 
which he preaches at the peril of his life. Standing in jeop- 
ardy every hour, with an eye fixed on eternity, and fearless of 
every foe, is it surprising that, with surpassing energy and 
power, the apostles declared the gospel of the grace of God to 
their fellow-men ? 

5. They preached in God's name, and were sustained by 
the undoubted assurance of his support. 

They were ambassadors for God ; and, supported by his 
authority, had great boldness in declaring the messages of his 
grace. If God be for us, who can be against us? Strong 
in the Lord and in the power of his might, fearless of danger 
and of death, they gave themselves up to the guidance of his 
Spirit, speaking as the Holy Ghost gave them utterance ; and 
like their Lord, teaching as one having authority, and not as 
the Scribes. 

After those fragments of the public addresses of Christ and 
the apostles, which are recorded in the Scriptures, no exam- 
ple of a similar discourse in the primitive church remains, un- 



396 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

til we come down to Origen, in the third century. It is, how- 
ever, generally admitted, that such familiar remarks, in con- 
nection with the reading of the Scriptures, continued uni- 
formly to constitute a part of the social and public worship of 
the primitive Christians. Such instructions were expected 
particularly from the presbyters, Acts 20 : 28. 1 Pet. 5:2; 
but the privilege of public speaking was not restricted to them. 
The freedom of their worship permitted any one, with the 
exception of the female sex, to speak in their assemblies. 
This was not originally the exclusive or principal duty of 
the presbyter. 1 Hilary's testimony to this effect has already 
been given. 2 Origen, again, was invited by the bishops of 
Caesarea and the vicinity to preach in public, though he had 
never been ordained as a presbyter. 3 

Tertullian, and Justin Martyr, each say enough to show 
that the churches of Africa and Asia, respectively, still con- 
ducted their religious worship in the freedom and simplicity 
of earlier days. " We meet together to read the holy Scrip- 
tures, and, when circumstances permit, to admonish one an- 
other. In such sacred discourse we establish our faith, we 
encourage our hope, we confirm our trust, and quicken our 
obedience to the word by a renewed application of its truths." 4 
The whole account indicates that " the brethren" sought, by 
familiar remarks, and mutual exhortations, to enforce a prac- 
tical application of the portion of the Scriptures which had 
been read ; and to encourage one another in their religious 
hopes and duties. 

The account from Justin, which has already been given, 
corresponds with that of Tertullian, with the single excep- 
tion, that the addresses were from the presiding presbyter, 

1 Apost. Kirch. 1. c. 5. Comp. J. H. Bohmer, Dissertat. 7. De 
Dif. inter ordinem ecclesiast. etc. § 39. Eschenberg, Versuch Reli- 
gionsvortrLige, S. 85. Rothe, Anfange, Vol. 1. S. 155 — 160. 

2 Chap. 11. p. 340. 

3 Euseb. Eccl. Hist. 6. c. 19. Comp. Lib. 5. c. 10. Lib. 6. 19. 

4 Tertullian, Apol. 39. 



HOMILIES IN THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 397 

who conducted the worship of the assembly. ]n both in- 
stances it was a biblical exercise, designed to enforce a prac- 
tical application of the truths which had been presented in 
the reading. Not a single text, but the entire passage from 
the Scriptures which had been read, was the subject of 
remark. 

The taste of the present age is against this style of preach- 
ing; and, by common consent of pastor and people, it has 
fallen into neglect. But it has certain peculiar advantages, 
which deservedly recommend it to the consideration of every 
minister of Christ. 

1. It is recommended by apostolical precedent. 

The apostles were directed by wisdom from on high, to 
adopt, or, if you please, to continue this mode of address in 
the Christian church. They were content simply to com- 
mend the truth to their hearers as God had revealed it. They 
strove, as the only and ultimate end of all their preaching, to 
lay open the heart and conscience to the naked truth of God. 
So presented and applied, that truth became quick and pow- 
erful in producing the end of all preaching, — the conviction 
and conversion of men. 

2. This style of preaching is recommended by its practical 
efficacy. 

Never, elsewhere, has the ministry of man been attended 
with results so interesting and momentous as were those which 
followed the ministrations of the holy men in the first ages of 
the church, who knew no other style of address than the one 
we are considering, and who simply sought to give a plain ex- 
position of Scripture, with a direct and pungent application 
to the hearer. 

3. Expository preaching gives variety to the ministrations 
of the pulpit. 

The preacher, by continually offering the hasty suggestions 
of his own mind, is in danger of falling into a regular train 
of thought and illustration; and this, by frequent recurrence, 
34 



398 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

may give sameness to his ministrations, and render them as 
monotonous, almost, as the regular tone of his voice. His ser- 
mons thrown off in quick succession, from a mind jaded by the 
ceaseless recurrence of the same duties, may not unfrequently 
exhibit to the hearer only the separate lineaments of the same 
features. But in the various portions of the sacred volume there 
is a variety, a richness, and fertility which no uninspired intel- 
lect ever possessed ; and these, if successively introduced, may 
be an exhaustless theme of discourse, — ever new, gratefully di- 
versified, and yet alike interesting and edifying in their turn. 
All Scripture is given by inspiration of God, and is profitable 
for doctrine, for reproof, for correction, for instruction in right- 
eousness, that the man of God may be perfect, thoroughly fur- 
nished unto all. good works. 2 Tim. 3: 16. Why forever set 
this aside, to inflict upon our auditory what is too often the 
production of a barren mind, or a wearied intellect and a 
cold heart. 

4. Expository addresses afford the happiest means of apply- 
ing religious instruction to all classes and conditions of men. 

In a consecutive exposition of the Scriptures avast variety 
of topics arises, which, discreetly handled, may be made the 
means of enforcing duties, that otherwise would never be em- 
braced within the teachings of the ministry. A single epis- 
tle of Paul, or one of the evangelists, thus expounded, will in 
a few months, lead the preacher to remark upon many sub- 
jects, which, otherwise, in the whole course of his ministry, 
might never find a place in his public discourses. 

5. The preparation of such discourses affords the preacher 
the happiest opportunity of enriching his own mind with va- 
ried and profitable learning. 

Many a sermon is written without the addition of a single 
valuable thought, or of a new fact to the acquisitions of the 
preacher. But how varied the inquiries which arise in the 
attempt to elucidate a portion of Scripture. Geography, his- 
tory, philology, philosophy, theology doctrinal and practical, 



HOMILIES IN THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

all are put in requisition, and bring their varied contributions 
to elucidate the sacred page, and to enrich his own mind. 
His lexicons are recalled from the neglected shelf. His 
Bible, in the original tongue, is resumed. He drinks at the 
sacred fountain, refreshing alike to the heart and the mind, 
and returns to his people with fresh acquisitions, that make 
him both a wiser man and a better clergyman. 

Finally, this mode of address, above all others, gives the 
preacher opportunity to bring the truth of God, with its living, 
life-giving power, to bear upon the minds of his people. 

That which the preacher speaks is now no longer his own. 
It is Jehovah's awful voice which speaks, calling upon the 
hearer to listen obediently to his high commands. The au- 
dience may cavil at the preacher, or sit by in cold indiffer- 
ence, but they have a solemn interest in these messages of 
God to them. Opposition is silenced, and the ear is opened 
to attend while Jehovah speaks. What would have fallen 
powerless from the preacher's lips, now comes with divine 
authority and power to convince and convert the soul. Mul- 
titudes, on earth and in heaven, can attest the mighty pow- 
er of divine truth, thus plainly set forth from the word of God, 
in bringing them to repentance. Let the minister observe 
the moral efficacy of his various ministrations, and he will find 
that when he has ceased to preach himself, when he has with- 
drawn himself most from the notice of his hearers, and 
brought forward the word of God, to unfold to them its tre- 
mendous truths, then has he seen the happiest fruits of his la- 
bors. Let him return, after a long absence, to the former 
scene of his labors, and he will find, that while his hearers 
have forgotten his most elaborate sermons, they still remem- 
ber his faithful expositions of the word of God in the evening- 
lecture. 



400 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

II. Homilies in the Greek church. 5 

From the third century, the homilies of the Greek and Ro- 
man fathers are so different, that it will be most convenient to 
consider them separately, confining our attention to that pe- 
riod which extends in the Greek church, from Origen, A. D. 
230, to Chrysostom, A. D. 400, and in the Roman, from Cyp- 
rian to Augustine. 

With Origen a new style of public address began in the 
Greek church, which had, indeed, some advantages, but was 
attended by many and still greater faults. The following 
brief outline of the characteristics of the style of preaching 
now under consideration, and of the circumstances which 
led to its adoption, is given chiefly from Eschenburg, who is 
admitted to have written on this subject with more candor 
and discrimination than any other author. 

1. Origen introduced that allegorical mode of interpreting 
the Scriptures, which, while it affected to illustrate, contin- 
ued, for a long time, to darken the sacred page. Not con- 
tent with a plain and natural elucidation of the historical 
sense of the text, it sought for some hidden meaning, darkly 
shadowed forth in allegorical, mystical terms. Great as was 
Origen in talent, industry, and learning, he showed still great- 
er weakness in the childish fancies in which he indulged as 
an interpreter of Scripture. The great respect in which he 
was held gave currency to his mode of preaching, so that he 
became the father of all that allegorical nonsense, which for 
a long time continued to dishonor the public preaching of the 
ancient church. 

2. The sermons of the period under consideration, were 

5 The writers of the period now under consideration, are Origen, 
A. D. 230, Gregory of Neocaesarea, A. D. 240; Athanasius, A. D. 
325 ; Basil the Great, A. D. 370 ; Gregory of Nyssa, A. D. 370 ; Gre- 
gory Nazianzen, 379. Among others of less note, may be classed, 
Methodius, A. D. 290 ; Macarius, A. D. 373; Ephraem the Syrian, 
A. D. 370 ; Arnphiloginus, A. D. 370—375 ; and JNectarius, A. D. 381. 



HOMILIES IN THE GREEK CHURCH. 401 

occupied with profitless, polemical discussions and specula- 
tive theories. 

The question with the preacher seems too often to have 
been, not what will produce the fruits of holy living, and pre- 
pare the hearer for eternity; but how the opinions of another 
can best be controverted ; worthless dogmas, it may be, de- 
serving no serious consideration. The speculations in which 
the preacher indulged were advanced without due regard to 
their practical tendency. Whether those who adopted them 
would be made wiser and better, was a question not often 
asked. Doctrinal points, rather than moral truths, were 
taught from the Scriptures ; and often were sentiments con- 
demned which were truly just, while others were extolled 
which were wholly worthless. 

3. The preachers of this period claimed most undeserved 
respect for their own authority. 

Flattered by the great consideration in which they were 
held, and the confidence in which the people waited on them 
for instruction, they converted the pulpit into a stage for the 
exhibition of their own pertinacity, ignorance and folly. 
They manifested an angry impatience at the errors of others, 
persecuted them for following their own convictions, and con- 
demned them for refusing assent to arbitrary forms, which 
they themselves prescribed as conditions of salvation. With 
all their self-conceit, they manifested a time-serving spirit. 
As the opinions of the court and of the principal men in the 
nation favored one religious party or another, so were they 
more or less reserved in exposing the errors of the same. The 
polemic discourses from the pulpit changed with every change 
of administration ; and what a short time before had been ad- 
vanced as wholesome truth, under a change of circumstances 
came to be denounced as damnable heresy. 

4. The sermons of this period were as faulty in style, as 
they were exceptionable in the other characteristics which 
have been mentioned. 

34* 



402 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

Not only was the simplicity which characterized the teach- 
ings of Christ and of the apostles, in a great measure lost, in 
absurd and puerile expositions of Scripture, and corrupted 
by the substitution of vain speculations, derived especially 
from the Platonic philosophy, but the style of the pulpit was 
in other respects vitiated and corrupt. Philosophical terms 
and rhetorical flourishes, forms of expression extravagant and 
far-fetched, biblical expressions unintelligible to the people, 
unmeaning comparisons, absurd antitheses, spiritless interro- 
gations, senseless exclamations and bombast, disfigure the ser- 
mons of the period now under consideration. 

Causes which contributed to form the style above de- 
scribed. 

1. The prevalence of pagan philosophy. 

The preacher was compelled to acquaint himself with the 
philosophical speculations of the day, to expose their subtle- 
ties, and he unconsciously fell into a similar mode of phi- 
losophizing. 

2. The conversion of many philosophers to Christianity, 
especially at the beginning of this period, had an influence in 
corrupting the simplicity of the Christian system, both in doc- 
trine and in discourse. 

They sought to incorporate their philosophical principles 
with the doctrines of Christianity, and to introduce their rhe- 
toric and sophistries into the discourses of the clergy. Every 
discussion gave occasion for the introduction of various forms 
of expression unknown in Scripture. But to give greater au- 
thority to such discussions, certain phrases were selected from 
the Scriptures, to which a meaning was attached similar to 
the philosophical terms in use ; and out of this strange com- 
bination, a new dialect was formed for the pulpit. In this 
way the few and simple doctrines of Christianity received 
from an impure philosophy many additions from time to time; 
and by continual controversy were darkened the more, and 



HOMILIES IN THE GREEK CHURCH, 403 

gradually almost excluded from the instructions of the pul- 
pit. 

3. The evil in question was aggravated by the want of 
suitable preparation for the ministry. 

Some betook themselves to the schools of the Platonic 
philosophy, and became practised in the arts of the orators 
and sophists of the day. Others sought, in deserts and in 
cloisters, to prepare themselves for the sacred office. Here 
they brooded over what they had previously read and heard. 
Here, removed from intercourse with men, they only learned 
to be visionary, perverse, self-willed and immoral. The con- 
sequence was, that their instructions abounded with distorted, 
false views of virtue and doctrine, and of the means of moral 
improvement. 

4. Ignorance of the original languages of the Scriptures, 
and of just principles of interpretation, contributed to the same 
result. 

Philo, Plato, and others, were read, instead of the evange- 
lists, and Paul, and the other apostles. The Hebrew was 
little cultivated, and the true principles of interpretation were 
unknown. 

5. A blind self-conceit had much influence in setting aside 
the great truths and duties of religion. 

Forgetful of the religious edification of his people, the 
preacher was occupied with speculations upon trifling and un- 
meaning things. These accordingly were the topics of his 
public discourses, whenever he was not employed in the en- 
deavor to expose some heretical dogma. 

6. The religious controversy of the day gave an unprofitable 
direction to the instructions of the pulpit. 

The preacher had constantly the attitude of a polemic, 
watching with a vigilant eye any defection from the truth, 
and hastening to oppose the outbreak of some destructive 
heresy. 

7. The increasing influence of the bishop. 



404 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

This was itself a new source of polemical discussion. The 
bishops at the head of their churches, and, in the larger ci- 
ties, already having great authority over the presbyters and 
deacons, would not receive from these the least contradiction. 
If any reflection was cast upon the dignity of the bishop, whe- 
ther justly or unjustly, that was enough. Not content mere- 
ly to be honored, the bishops would be implicitly obeyed. 
To this demand some one perhaps ventured to dissent. If 
he had the courage or inconsideration to advance an opposite 
opinion concerning a doctrine of Scripture, or a sentiment 
avowed in a public address, he was, if possible, ejected from 
office by the bishop ; and for what he had said or written was 
condemned as a heretic. 

8. The increasing formalities of public worship had no 
small influence in diverting the mind from the true object of 
public religious instruction. 

These forms, of which Christianity in its original simplici- 
ty had so few, were generally multiplied ; great, attention was 
paid to the adorning of the churches ; festivals became nume- 
rous ; the effect of all which was to turn off the mind from the 
essential truths and duties of religion, and fasten attention 
upon other things, which have not the least influence in pro- 
moting the spiritual improvement of man. The preacher 
sought to adapt his addresses to these forms and festivals, 6 

6 " Of this depraved state of the public mind, we have a striking 
example from Socrates. In relating the endless discords of the church- 
es in regard to their rites and festivals, he refers to the decision of the 
apostolical council, Acts 15: 23 — 30, to show that the apostles gave no 
instructions touching these forms, but insisted only on moral duties, 
and proceeds to say, ' some, however, regardless of these practical in- 
junctions, treat with indifference, every species of licentiousness, but 
contend as if for their lives for the days when a festival should be held.' " 
— Eccl. Hist. Lib. 5. c. 22. The same degeneracy characterized the 
church before the Reformation. "In proportion as a higher value 
was attached to outward rites, the sanctification of the. heart, had be- 
come less and less an object of concern ; dead ordinances had every- 
where usurped the place of a Christian life; and, by a revolting yet 
natural alliance, the most scandalous debauchery had been combined 






HOMILIES IN THE LATIN CHURCH. 405 

and often fell into extravagances and fanaticism. Monks, as- 
cetics and recluses were extolled as saints, and commended 
as examples of piety. 

Finally, the effeminacy, the tendency to gloom and melan- 
choly, and the love of the marvellous which have ever cha- 
racterized the Eastern nations, became to some extent infused 
into the religious discourses of their preachers. 

III. Homilies in the Latin church. 

The writers of this same period, from A. D. 250 to 400, to 
whom reference is had in the following remarks, are Cyprian, 
Zeno and Ambrose. The characteristic distinctions be- 
tween these and the Greek fathers whose public discourses 
have been considered, are given by our author in the follow- 
ing summary. 

1. The Latins were inferior to the Greeks, in their exege- 
sis of the Scriptures. They accumulated a multitude of pas- 
sages, without just discrimination or due regard to their ap- 
plication to the people. 

2. They interested themselves less with speculative and 
polemic theology than the Greeks. 

3. They insisted upon moral duties more than the Greeks, 
but were equally unfortunate in their mode of treating these 
topics, by reason of the undue importance which they attached 
to the forms and ceremonies of religion ; hence their reverence 
for saints and relics, their vigils, fasts, penances and austeri- 
ties of every kind. 

4. In method and style the homilies of the Latin fathers 
are greatly inferior to those of the Greeks. 

with the most superstitious devotion. Instances are on record of theft 
committed at the altar, seduction practised in the confessional, poison 
mingled with the Eucharist, adultery perpetrated at the foot of the 
cross." — D'Jiubigne's Ref. Vol. JII p. 348. This is one of the evils 
of Prelacy. It encourages a debasing superstition which, by corrupt- 
ing the doctrines of religion, vitiates the morals of the people. 



406 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

Causes productive of these characteristics. 

1. The lack of suitable means of education. 

They neither had schools of theology, like the Greeks, nor 
were they as familiar with the literature and oratory of their 
own people. Ambrose was promoted to the office of bishop, 
with scarcely any preparation for its duties. 

2. Ignorance of the original languages of the Bible. 

Of the Hebrew they knew nothing; of the original of the 
New Testament they knew little ; and still less of all that is 
essential to its right interpretation. When they resorted to 
the Scriptures, it was too frequently to oppose heresy by an 
indiscriminate accumulation of texts. When they attempted 
to explain, it was by perpetual allegories. 

3. The want of suitable examples, and a just standard of 
public speaking. 

Basil, Ephraem the Syrian, and the two Gregories, were 
contemporaries, and were mutual helps and incentives to one 
another. Others looked to them as patterns for public preach- 
ing. But such advantages were unknown in the Latin church. 
The earlier classic authors of Greece and Rome were discard- 
ed, from bigotry ; or, through ignorance, so much neglected, 
that their influence was little felt. 

4. The unsettled state of the Western churches should be 
mentioned in this connection. 

Persecuted and in exile at one time, at another engaged in 
fierce and bloody contests among themselves, 7 the preachers 
of the day had little opportunity to prepare for their appropri- 
ate duties. Literature was neglected. Under Constantine, 
Rome herself ceased to be the seat of the fine arts, and bar- 
barism began its disastrous encroachments upon the provinces 
of the Western church. 

5. The increasing importance of the bishop's office. 

The pride of the bishops, and their neglect of their duty 

7 The contests for the election of bishops often ran so high as to end 
in bloodshed and murder, of which an example is given in Walch's 
History of the Popes, p. 87. Ammianus Marcellinus, Lib. 27. c. 3. 



HOMILIES IN THE LATIN CHURCH. 407 

as preachers, kept pace with their advancement in authority. 
As in the Greek church, so also in the Latin, this sense of 
their own importance gave a polemic character to their preach- 
ing. But in the latter church they were not merely careful 
to assert and defend their own dignity ; many also became 
indolent and pleasure-loving, as their incomes increased ; or 
they manifested a spirit equally foreign from that of a public 
religious teacher. They sought, in every possible way, to 
promote their own power and self-aggrandizement. They 
created new and needless offices, better suited to assist them in 
commanding, in governing, and in maintaining their dignity, 
than to promote the instruction and edification of the people. 
By such means they sought to blind the eyes of the people, 
and to forestall the popular sentiment, which otherwise might 
be too easily formed against their pride and neglect of duty 
as religious teachers. 

Others sought, by the appearance of great sanctity, by celi- 
bacy and seclusion, by fasting and the like, to maintain and 
to augment their importance. In the practice of these aus- 
terities, they wasted so much time that little remained to be 
employed in preparation for public speaking. 

6. The increase of the ceremonies and forms of public 
worship. 

The effect of all these was, to give importance to the bish- 
op ; and, in his zeal for the introduction and general adoption 
of them, the essential points of the Christian religion were 
forgotten. Need we relate with what zeal Victor, the Roman 
bishop, engaged in the controversies respecting Easter and 
the ceremonies connected with it? What complicated rites 
were involved with the simple ordinance of baptism, and the 
abuses with which they were connected ; what importance, 
what sanctity, was ascribed to their fasts, and what controver- 
sies arose between the Latin and the Greek church from the re- 
luctance of the latter to adopt the rites of the former 1 What in- 



408 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

credible effects were ascribed to the sign of the cross ? 8 Where 
indeed would the enumeration end, if we should attempt a spe- 
cification of all the ceremonies, with their various abuses, 
which were introduced during the period under consideration 1 
Thus ancient Episcopacy touched with its withering blight 
the ministrations of the pulpit, both in the churches of the 
East and of the West. 9 

To the foregoing view we subjoin one or two remarks. 

1. Episcopacy is an incumbrance to the faithful minister 
in the discharge of his appropriate duties. 

The reader has noticed what obstacles these ancient pre- 
latists of the church encountered in their ministry. So much 
attention was requisite to guard the Episcopal prerogatives, 
such vigilance to root out the heresies that were perpetually 
shooting up in rank luxuriance within the church ; so much 
time was wasted in useless discussions about rites and forms, 
festivals and fasts, and all the ceremonials of their religion, as 
sadly to divert their attention from their appropriate work of 
winning; souls to Christ. 

All this is only the natural result of an exclusive and for- 
mal religion. Such a religion addresses itself powerfully to 
strong, original principles of our nature. And the results 
are as distinctly manifest in modern, as they were in ancient 
prelacy. Undue importance is given to the externals of reli- 
gion, which have little or no place in the ministrations of the 
pulpit. In the perpetual lauding of the church, her rites, and 
her liturgy; in the conscious reliance upon her ordinances; 
in the sanctimonious exclusiveness, which boasts of apostoli- 
cal succession and divine right; in the sleepless vigilance to 
guard against any imaginable departure from the rubric, — in 

8 Cyprian, Lib. 2. Testimon. adv. Indaeos. c. 21, 22. Lactant. In- 
stit. Lib. 4. c. 27,28. Vol. 1. p. 594, ed BUemann. 

9 Many other particulars in relation to the homilies of the ancient 
church are given in the author's Christian Antiquities, c. ]2. pp.237 
—252. 



HOMILIES IN THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 409 

all these we see the influences still at work, which wrought 
such mischief in the ministry of ancient prelacy ; still, as then, 
embarrassing the faithful preaching of Christ and him cruci- 
fied. The charges of the bishops and the sermons of the 
clergy, show distinctly the strong bias which the mind re- 
ceives from a religion surcharged with ceremonials, and 
boasting its exclusive prerogatives. These unconsciously as- 
sume undue importance in the preacher's mind. His Bible 
furnishes him with a text; but too frequently his rubric sug- 
gests his subject. 10 Such is the natural course of the human 
mind. It fastens strongly upon what is outward and sensual; 
forgetful of that which is inward and spiritual. " The Divine 
Founder of Christianity, as if in wise jealousy of a tendency 
which may be so easily abused, confined the ceremonials of 
his religion within the strictest limits." 

According to the canons of the church, which were adopt- 
ed in 1603, " whosoever shall affirm that the rites and cere- 
monies of that church are ' wicked, antichristian, or supersti- 
tious,' shall be excommunicated, ipso facto, and not restored 

10 Even the Christian Observer, for May, 1804, has an article from 
a churchman, gravely inquiring, not after the best means for the con- 
version of men, and their continuance in the Christian faith, but for 
the " most effectual means which a faithful clergyman can take during 
his life, in order to prevent his flock from becoming Dissenters after his 
death /" As though tbe highest ends of a faithful Episcopal minister 
were, not to save the souls of his people, but to save thern from be- 
coming Dissenters. La the foregoing remarks, allusion has hardly 
been made to the Puseyite party in that church ; and yet a late writer 
claims on that side, nine of the thirteen charges which have been de- 
livered by English bishops, within a short time past ; and even of the 
remaining four, only one was decidedly against the party. One of 
this class, in t j ad of be ng absorbed in the great doctrines of the gos- 
pel, is intent, with almost a mystic monomania, upon the arrangement 
of the merest trifles, — clerical costume and pulpit etiquette, chaplets r 
crosses, crucifixes, wax candles, flowers, " red," " white," and " inter- 
mingled." 

" Nescio quid meditans nugarum et totus in illis." 

35 



410 THE PRTMITIVE CHURCH. 

until he repent, and publicly revoke his wicked errors." Can. 
6. The seventy-fourth canon directs that archbishops and 
bishops shall wear the accustomed apparel of their degrees, 
and that the subordinate orders shall " wear gowns with stand- 
ing sleeves, straight at the hands ; or wide sleeves, with hoods 
or tippets, of silk or sarcanet, and square caps." They are 
not to wear " wrought night-caps, but only plain night-caps 
of black silk, satin, or velvet." At home they may wear 
"any comely or scholar-like apparel, provided it be not cut 
or pinkt ; and that in public they go not in their doublet and 
hose, without coats or cassocks ; and that they wear not any 
light-colored stockings." All this is gravely entered in the 
canons of the church, and " ratified by letters-patent from the 
king, under the great seal of England, after having been dili- 
gently read with great contentment and comfort." 

2. As a conservative principle, to preserve the unity of the 
church, Episcopacy is entirely inadequate. 

If the unity of the church consist in a name merely, and in 
forms, — in the use of a prayer-book and surplice, — then may 
Episcopacy be said to preserve this unity ; but in what else 
have they of this communion ever been united ? how else 
have they kept the unity of the faith ? In the ancient church 
what was the success of the Episcopal expedient to preserve 
the unity of the church ? Let Milton reply. " Heresy begat 
heresy with a certain monstrous haste of pregnancy in her 
birth, at once born and bringing forth. Contentions, before 
brotherly, were now hostile. Men went to choose their bish- 
op, as they went to a pitched field, and the day of his election 
was like the sacking of a city, sometimes ending in the blood 
of thousands; .. so that, instead of finding prelacy an im- 
peacher of schism and faction, the more I search, the more I 
grow into all persuasion to think rather, that faction and she, 
as with a spousal ring, are wedded together, never to be di- 
vorced." ll 

» Prose Works, Vol. 1. pp. 121, 122. 



HOMILIES IN THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 411 

What idea does the profession of Episcopacy at present 
give of one's religious faith ? Is he Calvinistic, Arminian, 
or Unitarian; high-church or low-church; Puseyitish, semi- 
popish, or what 1 " The religion of the Church of England," 
says Macaulay, " is so far from exhibiting that unity of doc- 
trine which Mr. Gladstone represents as her distinguishing 
glory, that it is, in fact, a bundle of religious systems without 
number. It comprises the religious system of Bishop Tom- 
line, and the religious system of John Newton, and all the 
religious systems that lie between them. It comprises the 
religious system of Mr. Newman, and the religious system 
of the Archbishop of Dublin, and all the religious systems 
that lie between. All these different opinions are held, 
avowed, preached, printed, within the pale of the church, by 
men of unquestioned integrity and understanding." 12 

As an expedient, therefore, to preserve the unity of the 
church, Episcopacy must be pronounced an entire failure. 
And yet they of this denomination present the extraodinary 
spectacle, of the most discordant sect in all Christendom 
boasting the conservative powers of their religion as its dis- 
tinguishing glory, and urging a return to this, their " one 
body in Christ," as the only means of preserving the unity of 
the church !" 

12 Review of Gladstone's Church and State. Miscel. Vol. 3. p. 306. 



CHAPTER XIV. 

THE BENEDICTION. 

I. Origin and import of the rite. 

It seems to have been from remote antiquity, a common 
belief, that either a blessing or a curse, when pronounced 
with solemnity, is peculiarly efficacious upon those who are 
the objects of it. 1 So common was this belief, that it gave 
rise to the proverb, " The blessing and the curse fail not of 
their fulfilment." The consequences were momentous, ac- 
cording to the character of the person from whom the pro- 
phetic sentiment proceeded. The blessing of the aged patri- 
arch, of the prophet, the priest, and the king, was sought with 
peculiar interest, and their execration deprecated with corre- 
sponding anxiety. Of the king's curse we have an instance, 
in 1 Sam. 14: 24. Saul adjured the people and said, Cursed 
be the man that eateth any food until the evening, that I may 
be avenged on mine enemies. Comp. Josh. 6: 26, with 1 
Kings 16: 34. The blessing and the curse of Noah upon his 
sons, Gen. 9: 25 — 28, and of Moses upon the children of Is- 
rael, Deut. xxviii, xxxiii, are familiar illustrations of the same 
sentiment, as is also the history of Balaam, whose curse upon 
Israel Balak sought with so much solicitude, Num. xxii, xxiii, 
xxiv. The blessing of the patriarchs Isaac and Jacob, re- 
spectively, was sought with peculiar anxiety, as conveying to 
their posterity the favor of God and the smiles of his provi- 

1 Dira detestatio nulla expiatur victima. — Hor. Epod. 5, 90. Hence 
also the expression, Tkycsteae preces, in the same ode. Comp. Iliad. 
9, 455. 



THE BENEDICTION. 



413 



dence. Gen. xxvii, and xlviii, xlix. Comp. Deut. xxxiii. 
The son of Sirach expresses a similar sentiment, 3: 9. " The 
blessing of the father establisheth the houses of children ; but 
the curse of the mother rooteth out foundations." 

With the question relative to the prophetic character of 
these patriarchal benedictions we are not now concerned. It 
is sufficient for our present purpose that the benediction of 
patriarchs, of parents, and of all those who were venerable 
for their age, or for their religious or official character, was 
regarded as peculiarly efficacious in propitiating the favor of 
God towards those upon whom the blessing was pronounced. 

In addition to all this, the Aaronitic priesthood were di- 
vinely constituted the mediators between God and his people 
Israel. They were the intercessors for his people before his 
altar ; and stood in their official character, as daysmen be- 
tween the children of Israel and Jehovah their God. In this 
official capacity, Aaron and his sons were directed to bless 
the children of Israel, saying, " The Lord bless thee and keep 
thee. The Lord make his face shine upon thee and be gra- 
cious unto thee. The Lord lift up his countenance upon thee 
and give thee peace." Thus were they to put the name of 
God upon the children of Israel, and the promise of God was 
that he would bless them. Num. 6: 24 — 27. In conformity 
with this commission to the house of Aaron, it was a univer- 
sal custom in the worship of the Jews, both in the temple and 
in their synagogues, for the people to receive the blessing on- 
ly at the mouth of the priests, the sons of Aaron. If none of 
these priests were present, another was accustomed to invoke 
the blessing of God, supplicating in the prayer the triple bless- 
ings of the benediction, that the assembly might not retire 
unblessed ; but this was carefully distinguished from the sacer- 
dotal benediction. 2 

This view of the subject may perhaps aid us in forming a 
just idea of the nature and import of the sacerdotal benedio 

2 Vitringa, De Synagoga, Lib. 3, part 2. c. 20. 
35* 



414 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

tion. The term benediction is used to express both the act 
of blessing, and that of consecrating, — two distinct religious 
rites. The sacerdotal benediction, according to the views 
above expressed, seems to be a brief prayer, offered with pe- 
culiar solemnity unto God, for his blessing upon the people, 
by one who has been duly set apart to the service of the minis- 
try, as an intercessor with God in their behalf .2 

Both this and the other forms of benediction, in the acts of 
consecration and dedication, are exclusively the acts of the 
clergy. Only the higher grades of the clergy were permitted 
in the ancient church, to enjoy this prerogative. The coun- 
cil of Ancyra and others restricted it to bishops and presby- 
ters. 4 And in all Christian churches it is still a general rule 
that none but a clergyman is entitled to pronounce the bene- 
diction. In the Lutheran church none but an ordained cler- 
gyman is duly authorized to perform this rite. The licen- 
tiate accordingly includes himself in the petition, saying, not 
as the ordained minister, The Lord bless you, etc., but The 
Lord bless us. And if a layman is officiating, he includes 
the form of benediction in his prayer, varying yet again the 
emphasis, and saying, The Lord bless us, etc. Their doc- 
trine is, that the minister stands in the place of Christ, to 
bless the people in his name ; and that in the benediction 
there is an actual conferring of the blessing of God upon the 
people — of which, however, none are partakers but those who 
receive it in faith. Such, also, is the Roman Catholic doc- 
trine of the priesthood, derived from the prelacy of the ancient 
church. Immediately upon the rise of Episcopacy, the cler- 
gy began to claim kindred with the Jewish priesthood. The 
bishop became the representative of the Lord Jesus Christ ; 
and the priesthood, like that of the Jews, the mediators be- 

3 According to Ambrose, the benediction is — sanctificationibus et 
gratiarum votiva collatio — votiva ; quia benedicens vovet et optat. — J. 

Grttseri, Vol. V. 178, in Lib. 1. De Benedictionibus. 

4 Cone. Nic. c. 18. Ancyr. c. 2. Arelat. 1. c. 15. Constit. Apost. 
Lib. 8. c. 28. 



THE BENEDICTION. 415 

tween God and man. This delusive dogma changed the cha- 
racter of the Christian ministry. They now became the 
priests of a vicarious religion, ministering before the Lord, 
Jor the piople, as the medium of communicating his blessing 
to them. This perversion of the Christian idea of the minis- 
try, which in an evil hour was put forth as the doctrine of the 
church, opened the way for infinite superstitions, and did 
more harm to spiritual Christianity than any single delusion 
that ever afflicted the church of Christ. It is remarkable, 
however, that neither the New Testament nor primitive Chris- 
tianity gives us any intimation of a vicarious priesthood. 

With reference to the intercessory office of the Jewish 
priesthood, Christ our mediator and intercessor with the Fa- 
ther is, indeed, styled our great High Priest. Heb. 4: 14. 
Comp. also, 2: 17. 3: 1. 5: 10. His benediction he pro- 
nounced upon the little children, when he took them in his 
arms and blessed them. Mark 10: 16. In his separation 
from his disciples at Bethany, when he was about to return 
unto his Father in heaven, he ended his instructions to them 
by pronouncing upon them his final benediction. " He lifted 
up his hands and blessed them ; and it came to pass, that 
while he blessed them, he was parted from them and carried 
up into heaven." Luke 24: 50, 51. These acts, however, 
have no reference to the sacerdotal benedictions of the Jew- 
ish priesthood. They are only the expressions of the benev- 
olent spirit of our Lord ; the manifestations of that love where- 
with he loved his own to the end. 

The apostles, also, frequently begin and end their epistles 
with an invocation of the blessing of God upon those to whom 
they write ; sometimes in a single sentence, and sometimes 
with a triple form of expression, analogous to the Aaronitic 
benediction. But these, again, appear to be only general 
and customary expressions of the benevolent desires of the 
writer towards those whom he addresses. They are a brief 
prayer to the Author of all good for his blessing upon the per- 



416 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

sons addressed. Whatever be the form of the salutation, it 
is only expressive of the love and benevolence, which swelled 
the hearts of the apostles towards the beloved brethren to 
whom they wrote. 

But in all the writings of the New Testament we have no 
indication of the use of the sacerdotal benediction , in the Jew- 
ish and prelatical sense of the term, in the religious worship 
of the apostolical churches. It appears, indeed, not to have 
been a religious rite, either in the apostolical or primitive 
churches, during the first or second century. Neither the 
apostolical fathers, nor Justin Martyr, nor Tertullian, make 
any mention of the sacerdotal benediction. This omission 
of a religious rite, in itself so becoming and impressive, is the 
more remarkable in the primitive Christians, inasmuch as 
they, in other things, so closely imitated the rites of the Jew- 
ish synagogue, in which this was an established and impor- 
tant part of religious worship. 

In regard to the reasons of this omission, writers upon the 
subject are not agreed. Some suppose that the secret disci- 
pline of the church afforded occasion for this omission. The 
doctrine of the Trinity was one of these sacred mysteries, 
which were carefully concealed from the uninitiated. So 
scrupulous were the churches on this point, that, for a time, 
even the use of the Lord's prayer was prohibited in public as- 
semblies for religious worship; because it was thought that 
it conveyed an allusion to this sacred and hidden mystery. 

Others suppose that the occurrence of the sacred name of 
God, STirP, to the Jews, verbum horrendi car minis, which 
none but the high-priest was ever permitted to pronounce, 
and he only once a year, on the great day of the atonement, 
— that the occurrence of this awful name of Jehovah, was, to 
the early Christians, a reason for omitting the sacerdotal be- 
nediction. 5 

5 Siegel, Handbuch, Vol. II. S.114. J. H. Haenen, Exercit. de ri- 
tu benedictionis sacerdotalis. Jenae, 1632, cited by Siegel. Augusti, 
Denkwilrdigkeiten, Vol. X. S. 179, 180. 



THE BENEDICTION. 417 

But the reader, we doubt not, has anticipated us in assign- 
ing altogether another reason for the extraordinary omission 
of the sacerdotal benediction in the primitive church. Was 
it not the superintending providence of God, which gracious- 
ly withheld the apostles and primitive Christians from adopt- 
ing a rite, rendered obsolete by the great atoning sacrifice of 
the High Priest of our profession, and susceptible of unutter- 
able abuses, as the subsequent history of the church too 
clearly shows? It is another instance of those remarkable 
omissions, of which Archbishop Whately has largely treated, 
and with consummate ability, in different works. He has no- 
ticed the wise precaution with which God in his providence so 
ordered events, that no possible trace should be found in the pri- 
mitive church, of any prescribed mode of church government, 
to the exclusion of all others ; or of a creed, or catechism, or 
confession, or form of prayer, or liturgy, upon which super- 
stition could seize as an invariable rule of faith and practice, 
and abuse to support a sanctimonious religion, which should 
conform to the letter, but disregard the spirit of his word. 
Such an omission he regards as " literally miraculous." Co- 
pying so closely after the synagogue, and yet, against all their 
Jewish prejudices, dropping this rite of their synagogue-wor- 
ship, the apostles must, on the same principle, be supposed 
to have been supernaturally withheld from taking that course 
which would naturally have appeared to them so desirable. 

The apostolical benediction, then, in spirit and in import, 
is altogether unlike the Aaronitic benediction of the Jews, 
or the prelatical blessing of the bishop and priest. It is no- 
thing more than a brief prayer; a benevolent desire, offered 
with solemnity unto God, for his blessing upon the people. 
The several forms of expression are one in meaning, and ex- 
press the desire, that the blessing of God, both spiritual and 
temporal, may be and abide with the worshipping assembly. 
The clergyman alone pronounces the benediction, not in the 
vicarious character of mediator or intercessor between God 



418 



THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 



and his people, but solely in conformity with the apostolic 
precept, requiring all things to be done decently and in order. 
We now return to the prelatical use of the benediction. 

II. Mode of administering the rite. 

The Jewish priests pronounced the blessing, standing and 
facing the people, with the arms uplifted, the hands outspread, 
and with a peculiar position of the fingers ; 6 the congregation 
meanwhile standing. The attitude of the assembly and of 
the officiating priest was the same in the Christian church. 
But the words of the benediction were chanted, and the sign 
of the cross was given. 

The sign of the cross both in the Eastern and Western 
church, was regarded as indispensable in the benediction. 
This sign is still retained, not only by the Roman Catholics, 
but even by many Protestants. The Lutherans make use of 
it, not only in the benediction, but in the consecration of the 
elements, in baptism, ordination, confirmation, absolution, 
etc.* The church of England also retained the sign in bap- 
tism. 7 But how extensively it is observed at present in that 
church, the writer is not informed. 

6 Vitringn, De Synagoga, Lib. 3. p. 2. c. 20. p. 1118. Vitringa, 
Hadria, Reland, Antiq. Sac Vet. Heb. p. 1C2. 

7 See canon 30, where it is sanctioned and defended at length. 
The following is given, among many instances of the studied and su- 
perstitious formalities whch have been observed, to give a mysterious 
significancy to this sign of the cross in the benediction. " Graeci 
aeque atque Latini, quinque digitis, et tota manu crucem signantes 
benedicunt. DifFerunt quod Latini, omnibus digitis extensis, Graeci 
indice medio ac minimo extensis ac modicum incurvatis, non ita ta- 
men, ut inter se respondeant ; sed pollex directione sit, rectaque res- 
piciens, medius, pollicis incurvatione, introrsum vergat, minimus, in- 
ter pollicem et medium dirigatur ; pollice super annularis ad sese mod- 
erate deflexi unguem apposito id agunt. Qua se ratione et tres divi- 
nas personas, digitis nempe tribus extensis ; et duas in Christo natu- 
ras ; duobns ad se junctis, rentur significare.'* — Leo ./Matins, Dc Eixl. 
Occid. ct Orient., ccnseris.. Lib. 3. c. 18. pp. 1357 — 1361, cited by Au- 
gusts 



THE BENEDICTION. 419 

The benediction was sometimes sung, sometimes chanted, 
and sometimes pronounced as a prayer. There was no gen- 
eral rule or uniform custom on the subject. But when of- 
fered in connection with the responses of the people, it was 
sung and the responses chanted. Such, according to Augus- 
ti, is still the custom of the Lutheran church, and to some ex- 
tent also of the other reformed churches. 

In many places the benediction is pronounced twice, once 
at the close of the sermon, and again at the conclusion of the 
worship. 

In Catholic churches the congregation kneel, or incline the 
head, while the benediction is pronounced. The priest, ar- 
rayed in clerical robes, stands with uplifted hands and a pe- 
culiar arrangement of the fingers; speaking in the Latin 
tongue, in an elevated tone and with a prolonged accent 
resembling a chant. 



REMARKS. 

1. The sacerdotal benediction was very early made the 
means of enhancing the sanctity of the clerical office gen- 
erally, and especially of that of the bishop. 

It was supposed to have a peculiar efficacy in propitiating 
the favor of heaven. A mysterious, magic influence w is as- 
cribed to it. Even Chrysostom seems to have supposed that 
it rendered one invulnerable against the assaults of sin, and 
the shafts of Satan. 8 Accordingly it became to the clergy a 
convenient means, by which to impress upon the people a 
sense of the peculiar sanctity of their own office, and the im- 
portance of the blessings which the people might receive at 

8 Imo vero, mihi ne commodes horas duas, sed tibi ipsi, ut ex ora- 
tione patrium aliquam consolatione, percipias, ut benedictionibus ple- 
nus recedas, ut omni exparte securus abeas, ut spiritualibus acceptis 
armis invictus diabolo et inexpregnabilis fias. — Cited by Siegcl, tiuud- 
buch, Vol. II. S.3. 




420 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 



their hands. Even kings reverently bowed to receive the 
benediction of the bishops, who, especially, were not slow to 
take advantage of this popular impression, and early claimed 
the exclusive right of blessing the people. The subordinate 
clergy, having been duly consecrated by them, were permit- 
ted, in their absence and as their representatives, to pro- 
nounce the benediction upon the people. Still the act was 
virtually that of the bishops. Qui facit per alium facit per 
se. So that all clerical grace centred in the bishop ; and 
from him, through his clergy, descended upon the people of 
his diocese. 9 In this way the rite became the means of ex- 
alting the office of the bishop, and of inspiring the people 
with profound reverence for him and his official character. 

2. The sacerdotal benediction was soon perverted from its 
original and simple use, and bestowed on various occasions, 
upon a great variety of persons. 

If the clerical benediction was attended with such conse- 
quences to the people in their religious assemblies, it was na- 
tural to expect the same effects upon different classes of per- 
sons. Catechumens, accordingly, and candidates for bap- 
tism, energumens, penitents, etc., became the separate sub- 
jects of this rite. Persons of every description and condi- 
tion pressed to receive the blessing of the priest. Even in 
the age of Constantine this rage for the blessing of the cler- 
gy was forcibly manifested in its manifold applications to diff- 
erent classes of persons. 10 To what a pitch of extravagant 

9 J. H. Bohmer, Jus. Protestant, Lib. 3. vit. 40. § 14 and 41. 

10 Gretser gives the following instances, among many others, to 
show in what estimation the blessing of the priest was held. Cum 
S. Epiphanius episcopus Salaminae Cypri Hierosolymis versaretur, 
ornnis aetatis et sexus turba confltir.bat offerers parrulas (ad bene- 
dictionem) pedes deosculans,jimbrias vellens, ita vt gradum promove- 
re non valens, in uno loco vix fluctiis vndantis populi sus/inerct, Vol. 
V. p. 190. So also the venerable Bede, in his Hist Eccl. Lib. 3. c. 
2(5. In magna erat veneratione tempore illo religionis habitus, ita ut 
ubicunque clericus aliquis autmonculius adveniret, gaudenter ab om- 
nibus, tanquam Dei famulus exciperetur, et jam si in itinere pergens 






THE BENEDICTION. 421 

folly and superstition it afterwards arose, is sufficiently man- 
ifest in the rituals, missals, and agenda of the Romish church.. 

3. The perversions of this religious rite afford another il- 
lustration of the consequences of a departure from the sim- 
plicity and spirituality which become the worship of God. 

Possessed with the idea that clerical grace belonged to the 
ecclesiastical order, and might be imparted to another by 
their benediction, men sought this blessing on many, and of- 
ten on frivolous occasions. It became an essential rite in al- 
most all the ordinances of religion, and was pronounced: 
upon all classes of persons. It also became essentially the con- 
secrating act by which men were inducted into the different 
orders and offices of the church. If clerical consecration 
gave a religious sanctity to men, so might it also to whatever 
else was to be set apart to a religious use. Hence the con- 
secration, not only of the bread and wine of the eucharist, but 
of the church, the altar, the bell, the organ, the holy water, 
the baptismal water, and of almost everything that belonged 
to the sanctuary, or could be employed in its service. 

If the blessing of heaven could in this manner be imparted 
to man, so might it be also to his fields, his flocks, his herds, 
and whatever else might be employed or improved for his 
benefit. Indeed it would be difficult to say, what class of men, 
or what amidst all that is devoted to the service of man, has 
not at some time been the subject of sacerdotal benedic- 
tion. 11 

inveniretur accurrebant, et flexa cervice, vel manu signari vel ore il- 
lius se benedici gaudebant. — Cited by Gretser, as above. 

JI The Gregorian Sacramentary, for example, specifies the follow- 
ing particulars in which the benediction of the priest was pro- 
nounced, — Benedictio domus — et novae doinus. — Putei — Uvae vel 
favi — Ad fruges novas — Ad omnia quae volueris — Crinis novae — Acr. 
ni et aliarum carnium — Casei et ovorum — Ad quemcunque fructum. 
novarum arborum — Peregrinantium, itenerantium. To which many 
things have been added, such as Navis — Armorum, ensis, pilei et 
vexilli, Turris, Thalami conjugalis, sepulchri, etc. 

36 



422 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

When once the mind has taken its departure from the 
great principles of religion, which, whether relating to faith 
or practice, are few and simple, it wanders, in endless mazes 
lost, uncertain where or upon what to settle, and be again at 
rest. So easy and natural, and so disastrous withal, is the 
descent of the human mind, from that which is inward and 
spiritual in religion, and pure and simple in its manifestation, 
to that which is outward and formal. 

4. The foregoing considerations suggest another strong ob- 
jection to prelacy ; — its tendency to superstition. 

It is indeed a besetting sin in man, to o-ive a mis-direction 
to his religious feelings, by a veneration for unworthy objects, 
or by an inordinate reverence for what is really venerable in 
religion. Every religious ceremony, however appropriate, is 
liable to degenerate into a mere form, and consequently to en- 
courage superstition. But this danger is immensely increased 
by the multiplication of rites and forms. The attention 
given to them soon becomes inordinate, extravagant, super- 
stitious. The tendency to superstition increases in proportion 
to the number and insignificance of the objects which are 
thus invested with religious veneration. And is there not 
much in the Episcopal system, to create and foster such a 
tendency 1 This profound veneration for saints and saints' 
days, and for things that have been the subject of Episcopal 
consecration, this punctilious observance of festivals and fasts, 
this scrupulous adherence to the rubric, and the letter of the 
prayer-book, this anxious attention to clerical costume, to at- 
titudes and postures, — what is it all but • superstition ? giving 
a religious importance to that which has nothing to do with 
heartfelt and practical religion '? Even the bishop of London 
in a late charge, while he professedly condemns the Oxford 
superstitions, expresses great anxiety that the rubric should 
be closely adhered to, wishes all his clergy to preach in white, 
sees " no harm," in two wax candles, provided they arc not 
lighted; and approves of the arrangement "lately adopted 



THE BENEDICTION. 423 

in several churches, by which the clergyman looks to the south 
while reading prayers, and to the west while reading lessons!" 

5. Episcopacy encourages, indirectly, if it does not direct- 
ly inculcate, the notion of a vicarious religion. 

Ancient prelacy transformed the minister of Christ, under 
the gospel dispensation, into a Levitical priest. By this means 
the Christian religion was changed into something more re- 
sembling Judaism or Paganism, than Christianity. The 
priesthood became a distinct order, created by the appoint- 
ment of God and invested with high prerogatives as a vicari- 
ous propitiatory ministry for the people ; — the constituted me- 
dium of communicating grace from God to man. 12 The na- 
ture of the sacraments was changed. The sacramental table 
became an altar, and the contributions of the people an ofer- 
ing to the Lord. Papacy has held firmly to this doctrine of 
a vicarious religion down to the present time. Indeed no 
small share of the corruptions of that " mystery of iniquity," 
originated in its false idea of the Christian ministry. 

Protestantism at the Reformation was but half divorced 
from this delusion, and indications of its existence are still 
manifest in Protestant Episcopacy. The very name of 
11 priest " is carefully retained ; one of the second order of the 
clergy is not a minister, a presbyter, a pastor, in the ritual, 
but always a. "priest." The bishop is a reverend, or right 
reverend " father in God." And then that clerical grace 
which flows only through this appointed channel of commu- 
nication between God and man, the grace that is given by the 
imposition of the bishop's hands, the grace imparted to re- 
generate the soul in baptism, the grace that establishes the 
soul and seals the covenant in confirmation, the mysterious 
grace imparted in the benediction ; provided always, that the 
act be duly solemnized by a priest divinely appointed and epis- 
copally ordained, — verily, all these resemble more the minis- 

12 Sacerdos constituitur medius inter Deum et poplum. — Th. Aqui- 
nas, Summa 3. p. 22. 



424 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

trations of the Levitical priesthood, than of the pastors and 
teachers whom Christ gave " for the perfecting of the saints 
for the work of the ministry. 13 " 

Momentous consequences followed from the substitution 
of a vicarious priesthood. No church without a bishop, apos- 
tolical succession, divine right, the exclusive validity of Epis- 
copal ordination, baptismal regeneration, the mysterious effica- 
cy of the sacraments, the grace of Episcopal benediction and 
confirmation ; — truly these are awful mysteries; and they af- 
fect more or less the whole economy of grace. The natural 
and logical results of such a faith are seen in the movements 
of the Oxford Tractarians. The great object of these " un- 
protestantizing" reformers is, to re-instate in the church the 
prelatical ministry of other days, and to restore a vicarious 
religion with its endless absurdities and superstitions. Thus 
" the character of the church of Christ is changed. She is 
made to stand in the place of the Redeemer, whose work is 
marred. His atonement is incomplete, his righteousness in- 
sufficient. Ceremonies are multiplied, and the kingdom of 
God is no longer righteousness, and peace, and joy in the 
Holy Ghost. The office of the ministers is of course entire- 
ly changed and their true character lost. Thunders more 
awful than those of Sinai are heard. All is discouragement : 
the object of the Christian ministiy in their hands being ap- 
parently to try how difficult, how painful, how uncertain the 
Christian's course can be made with that ministry, and how 
impossible without it ! 

" In a word, their steps are dark, their ministrations mys- 
terious ; suited rather to the office of a priest of some heathen 
mythology than of ambassadors from Christ, ministers of the 
everlasting gospel, whose feet are beautiful upon the moun- 
tains, as those that bring glad tidings, that publish peace. 

13 Behold almost a whole convention moving off in a body to pros- 
trate themselves before their bishop, and receive his blessing. Such 
are the superstitions connected with the perversion of the benediction. 



THE BENEDICTION. 425 

ct The aspect which it wears towards those of other com- 
munions is fearful in the extreme. No purity of faith, no la- 
bor of love, no personal piety, no manifestation of the fruits of 
the Spirit, will avail anything. Though steadfast in faith, 
joyful through hope, and rooted in charity, they pass not 
through the eye of this needle, and shall not see the kingdom 
of God." 

The great evil of such a system is, that it is a religion of 
forms, of mysterious rites and awful prerogatives. Heaven in 
mercy save us from a religion which substitutes these things 
for the gospel of the grace of God, through Jesus Christ our 
Lord. To Episcopacy in any form, the une great objection 
which includes almost all others is this — it unavoidably, if 
not intentionally, encourages that besetting sin of man, — the 
innate propensity to substitute the outward form for the in- 
ward spirit of religion. 

We close, therefore, this protracted view of the Govern- 
ment and Worship of the Primitive Church, with a deepened 
impression of the greatness of that wisdom from on high, 
which guided the apostles in adopting an organization so sim- 
ple and at the same time so efficient in promoting those great 
ends for which the church of Christ was instituted ; which 
also directed them in the establishment of those simple and 
impressive forms of worship, which most happily promote 
the spirituality and sincerity in the worship of God, that 
alone are well pleasing in his sight. Nor can we resist the 
conviction, that the substitution of the Episcopal government 
and worship for the apostolical, was an efficient if not the prin- 
cipal cause of that degeneracy and formality, which soon suc- 
ceeded to the primitive spirituality and purity of the church. 
It began in the multiplication of church officers and ceremo- 
nies. Everything that could attract attention to religion by 
its pomp and ceremony was carefully brought to the aid of the 
church. It had been alleged by the heathen as an objection 
to the Christians, that they had no solemn rites, nothing attrac- 
36* 



426 THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH. 

tive, nothing imposing to command the admiration of men. 
To obviate this objection and reconcile the heathen to the 
Christian religion, not a few even of these pagan rites, with a lit- 
tle variation, were incorporated into the rituals of the church- 
es. After this fatal departure from the spirit of the gospel, 
the progress of declension exhibited in constantly increasing 
ostentation and formality, was easy and rapid. The elegant 
and forcible language of Robert Hall is the happiest expres- 
sion which we can give to our view of this speedy and disas- 
trous degeneracy. " The descent of the human mind, from 
the spirit to the letter, from what is vital and intellectual to 
what is ritual and external in religion, is the true source of 
idolatry and superstition in all the multifarious forms which 
they have assumed ; and as it began early to corrupt the re- 
ligion of nature, or more properly of patriarchal tradition, so 
it soon obscured the lustre and destroyed the simplicity of 
the Christian institute. In proportion as genuine devotion 
declined, the love of pomp and ceremony increased. The 
few and simple rites of Christianity were extolled beyond all 
reasonable bounds ; new ones were invented, to which mys- 
terious meanings were attached ! till the religion of the New 
Testament became in process of time as insupportable as the 
Mosaic law." 






I 



APPENDIX. 



The reader will better understand the propriety of calling the 
Episcopal liturgy "an extract of the mass translated," by com- 
paring some extracts from the Mass Book, with corresponding 
portions from the Book of Common Prayer. For the sake of 
comparison they are set in parallel columns. 



FESTIVALS. 



MASS BOOK. 



fRAYER BOOK. 



Ji Table of the Festivals, zchich are 
to be observed by ait the Catholics 
of the U. States, according to the 
last Regulations of the Holy See. 

All the Lord's days throughout 
the year. 

Circumcision. 

Epiphany. 

Purification. 

St. Matthias. 

St. Joseph. 

Annunciation. 

St. Mark. 

St. Philip and St. James. 

Finding of the Cross. 

Nativity of St John Baptist. 

St. Peter and St. Paul. 

St. James. 

St. Ann. 

St. Lawrence. 

Assumption. 

St. Bartholomew. 

Nativity of the Blessed Virgin. 

Exaltation of the Holy Cross. 

St. Matthew. 

St. Michael. 

St. Luke. 

St. Simon and St. Jude. 

All Saints. 

All Souls. 

St. Andrew. 
Conception. 



A Table of Feasts, to be observed 
in this Church, throughout the 
Year. 

All Sundays in the Year. 

The Circumcision of our Lord 
Jesus Christ. 

The Epiphany. 

The Conversion of St. Paul. 

The Purification of the Blessed 
Virgin. 

St. Matthias the Apostle. 

The Annunciation of the Bless- 
ed Virgin. 

St. Mark the Evangelist. 

St. Philip and St. James, the 
the Apostles. 

The Ascension of our Lord 
Jesus Christ. 

St. Barnabas. 

The Nativity of St. John the 
Baptist. 

St. Peter the Apostle. 

St. James the Apostle. 

St. Bartholomew the Apostle. 

St. Matthew the Apostle. 

St. Michael and all Angels. 

St. Luke the Evangelist. 

St. Simon and St. Jude, the 
Apostles. 

All Saints. 

St. Andrew the Apostle. 

St. Thomas the Apostle. 



428 



APPENDIX. 



MASS BOOK. 

St. Thomas. 

Christmas. 

St. Stephen. 

St. John. 

Holy Innocents. 

Easter Monday. 

Easter Tuesday. 

Ascension Day. 

Whitsun Monday. 

Whitsun Tuesday. 

Corpus Christi Day. 



FRAYER BOOK. 

The Nativity of our Lord Jesus 
Christ. 

St. Stephen the Martyr. 

St. John the Evangelist. 

The Holy Innocents. 

Monday and Tuesday in Eas- 
ter- Week. 

Monday and Tuesday in Whit- 
sun- Week. 



FASTS. 



The forty days of Lent. 

The ember days at the four sea- 
sons, being the Wednesday, Fri- 
day and Saturday, of the first week 
in Lent ; of Whitsun-week ; af- 
ter the 14th of September ; and of 
the third week in Advent. 

The Wednesdays and Fridays 
of all the four weeks of Advent. 

The vigils or eves of Whitsun- 
day ; of the Saints Peter and Paul ; 
of the Assumption of the Bless- 
ed Virgin ; of All Saints ; and of 
Christmas day. 

All Fridays throughout the year. 
The abstinence on Saturday is 
dispensed with, for the faithful 
throughout the United States, for 
the space often years (from 1833) 
except when a fast falls on Satur- 
day. 



Ash- Wednesday. 
Good -Friday. 

Other Days of Fasting ; on 
which the Church requires such a 
Measure of Abstinence, as is more 
especially suited to extraordinary 
Acts and Exercises of Devotion : 

The Season of Lent. 

The Ember-days at the Four 
Seasons, being the Wednesday, 
Friday, and Saturday, after the 
first Sunday in Lent, the Feast of 
Pentecost, September 14, and De- 
cember 13. 

The three Rogation Days, being 
the Monday, Tuesday, and Wed- 
esdaj' before Holy Thursday, or 
the Ascension of our Lord. 

All the Fridays in the year, ex- 
cept Christmas-Day. 



PREFACE. 



It is truly meet, and just, right 
and available, that we always, and 
in all places, give thanks to thee, 
O holy Lord, Father Almighty, 
eternal God : Through Christ our 
Lord ; by whom the Angels praise 
thy Majesty, the dominations 
adore it, the powers tremble be- 
fore it, the heavens and the hea- 
venly virtues, and blessed Sera- 
phim, with common joy, glorify 
it : With whom we beseech thee, 
that we may be admitted to join 
our voices ; saying in an humble 
manner : — 



Dearly beloved brethren, the 
scripture ' moveth us, in sundry 
places to acknowledge and con- 
fess our manifold sins and wick- 
edness, and that we should not 
dissemble nor cloak them before 
the face of Almighty God, our 
heavenly Father, but confess 
them with an humble, lowly, pen- 
itent, and obedient heart ; to the 
end that we may obtain forgive- 
ness of the same, by his infinite 
goodness and mercy. And al- 
though we ought, at all times, 
humbly to acknowledge our sins 



APPENDIX. 



429 



MASS BOOK. 



[The Lord's Prayer often re- 
peated.] 



PRAYER BOOK. 

before God ; yet ought we chiefly 
so to do, when we assemble and 
meet together, to render thanks 
for the great benefits that we have 
received at his hands, to set forth 
his most worthy praise, to hear 
his most holy word, and to ask 
those things which are requisite 
and necessary, as well for the 
body as the soul. Wherefore I 
pray and beseech you, as many 
as are here present, to accompa- 
ny me, with a pure heart and 
humble voice, unto the throne of 
the heavenly grace, saying : — 

[The same wearisome repeti- 
tions.] 



Gloria Patri. 

Glory be to the Father, and to 
the Son, and to the Holy Ghost ; 

As it was in the beginning, is 
now, and ever shall be, world with- 
out end. 



Venite, exultemus Domino. 

Come let us praise the Lord 
with joy ; let us joyfully sing to 
God our Saviour. Let us come 
before his presence with thanks- 
giving, and let us make a jubila- 
tion to him with psalms. 

For the Lord is a great God, and 
a great King above all Gods ; for 
the Lord will not reject his people. 
For in his hands are all the ends 
of the earth ; and the heights of 
the mountains are his. 

For the sea is his, and he made 



Gloria Patri. 

Glory be to the Father, and to 
the Son and to the Holy Ghost. 

As it was in the beginning, is 
now and ever shall be world with- 
out end. 

[ u By this rubric," say the Com- 
missioners of 1661, " the Gloria 
Patri is appointed to be said six 
times ordinarily, in every morn- 
ing and evening service, frequent- 
ly eight times in the morning and 
sometimes ten ; which, we think 
carries with it, at least, an ap- 
pearance of that vain repetition 
which Christ forbids."] 

Venite, exultemus Domino. 

O come, let us sing unto the 
Lord, let us heartily rejoice in the 
strength of our salvation. 

Let us come before his presence 
with thanksgiving, and show our- 
selves glad in him with psalms. 

For the Lord is a great God ; 
and a great King above all gods. 

In his hand are all the corners 
of the earth ; and the strength of 
the hills is his also. 

The sea is his, and he made it ; 



430 



APPENDIX. 



MASS BOOK. 

it ; and his hands have formed the 
dry land. Come let us adore and 
fall down before God ; let us weep 
before the Lord that made us. 
For he is the Lord our God ; and 
we are his people, and the sheep 
of his pasture. 

To-day, if you shall hear his 
voice, harden not your hearts. As 
in the provocation, according to 
the day of temptation in the wil- 
derness, where your fathers tempt- 
ed me ; they proved me, and saw 
my works. 

Forty years long was I offended 
with that generation ; and I said, 
these men always err in their 
hearts. And they have not known 
my ways ; so I swore in my 
wrath, that they should not enter 
into my rest. 

Gloria in Excelsis. 

Glory be to God on high, and 
peace on earth to men of good will 
we praise thee ; we bless thee 
we adore thee ; we glorify thee , 
we give thee thanks for thy great 
glory, O Lord God, heavenly 
King, God the Father Almighty : 
O Lord Jesus Christ, the only 
begotten Son ; O Lord God, Lamb 
of God, Son of the Father; who 
takest away ihe sins of the world, 
have mercy on us ; who takest 
away the sins of the world, receive 
our prayer; whosittestatthe right 
hand of the Father, have mercy 
on us. For thou only art holy ; 
thou only art the Lord ; thou on- 
ly, O Jesus Christ, together with 
the Holy Ghost, art most hiofh in 
the glory of God the Father. 
Amen. 



Te Deum laudamvs. 
Thee, Sovereign God, our grate- 
ful accents praise ; 



COMMON PRAYER. 

and his hands prepared the dry 
land. 

O come, let us worship and 
fall down ; and kneel before the 
Lord, our Maker. 

For he is the Lord our God ; 
and we are the people of his pas- 
ture, and the sheep of his hand. 

O worship the Lord in the 
beauty of holiness ; let the whole 
earth stand in awe of him. 

For he cometh, for he cometh 
to judge the earth; and with 
righteousness to judge the world, 
and the people with his truth. 



Gloria in Excelsis. 

Glory be to God on high, and 
on earth peace, good will towards 
men. We praise thee, we bless 
thee, we worship thee, we glorify 
thee, we give thanks to thee for 
thy great glory, O Lord God, 
heavenly King, God the Father 
Almighty. 

O Lord, the only begotten Son, 
Jesus Christ ; O Lord God, Lamb 
of God, Son of the Father, that 
takest away the sins of the world, 
have mercy upon us. Thou that 
takest away the sins of the world, 
have mercy upon us. Thou that 
takest away the sins of the world, 
receive our prayer. Thou that 
sittest at the right hand of God 
the Father have mercy upon us. 

For thou only art holy ; thou 
only art the Lord ; thou only, O 
Christ, with the Holy Ghost, art 
most high in the Glory of God 
the Father. Amen. 

Te Deum laudamus. 

We praise thee, O God ; we ac- 
knowledge thee to be the Lord. 



AFPENDIX. 



431 



MASS BOOK. 

We own thee, Lord, and bless 
thy wond'rous ways. 

To thee, eternal Father, earth's 
whole frame 

With loudest trumpets sound im- 
mortal fame. 

Lord God of hosts ! to thee the 
heav'nly pow'rs 

With sounding anthems fill thy 
vaulted tow'rs : 

Thy Cherubs, Holy, Holy, Ho- 
ly cry ; 

Thrice, Holy, all the Seraphim 
reply. 

Both heav'n and earth thy ma- 
jesty display : 

They owe their beauty to thy 
glorious ray. 

Thy praises fill the loud Apos- 
tles' choir ; 

The train of Prophets in the song 
conspire ; 

Legions of Martyrs in the cho- 
rus shine ; 

And vocal blood with vocal mu- 
sic join. 

By these thy Church, inspird 
with heav'nly art, 

Around the world maintains a 
second part, 

And tunes her sweetest notes, 
O God, to thee, 

The" Father of unbounded ma- 
jesty, 

The Son, ador'd co-partner of 

thy seat, 

And equal, everlasting Paraclete. 

Thou King of glory, Christ, of 
the Most High, 

Thou co-eternal, filial Deity ; 

Thou, to save the world from 
impending doom, 

Vouchsaf st to dwell within a Vir- 
gin's womb ; 

Death thou hast conquer'd ; from 
its fetters free, 

The faithful in thy kingdom reign 
with thee. 

At God's right hand, on a resplen- 
dent throne 

Thou sitt'st ; thy Father's glory 
is thy own. 



COMMON PRAYER. 

All the earth doth worship thee, 
the Father everlasting. 

To thee all Angels cry aloud ; 
the Heavens, and all the Powers 
therein. 

To thee, Cherubim and Sera- 
phim continually do cry, 

Holy, Holy, Holy, Lord God 
of Sabaoth. 

Heaven and Earth are full of 
the Majesty of thy Glory. 

The glorious company of the 
Apostles praise thee. 

The goodly fellowship of the 
Prophets praise thee. 

The noble army of Martyrs 
praise thee. 

The holy Church, throughout 
all the world, doth acknowledge 
thee, 

The Father, of an infinite Ma- 
jesty ; 

Thine adorable, true, and only 
Son ; 

Also the Holy Ghost, the Com- 
forter. 

Thou art the Kino- of Glory, 
O Christ. 

Thou art the everlasting Son 
of the Father. 

When thou tookest upon thee 
to deliver man, thou didst hum- 
ble thyself to be born of a Virgin. 

When thou hadst overcome the 
sharpness of death, thou didst 
open the kingdom of heaven to 
all believers. 

Thou sittest at the right hand 
of God, in the Glory of the Fath- 
er. 

We believe that thou shalt 
come to be our Judge. 

We therefore pi ay thee, help 
thy servants, whom thou hast re- 
deemed with thy precious blood. 

Make them to be numbered 
with thy saints, in glory everlast- 
ing. 

O Lord, save thy people, and 
bless thine heritage. 

Govern them and lift them up 
for ever. 






432 



APPENDIX. 



MASS BOOK. 

Thou art to judge the living and 
the dead ; 

Then spare those souls for whom 
thy veins have bled. 

O take us up amongst the bless'd 
above, 

To share with them thy everlast- 
ing love. 

Preserve, O Lord, thy people, and 
enhance 

Thy blessing on thy own inheri- 
tance : 

Forever raise their hearts, and 
rule their ways : 

Each day we bless thee, and pro- 
claim thy praise. 

No age shall fail to celebrate thy 
name, 

Nor hour neglect thy everlasting 
fame. 

Preserve our souls, O Lord, this 
day from ill ; 

Have mercy on us, Lord, have 
mercy still : 

As we have hop'd, do thou re- 
gard our pain ; 

"We've hop'd in thee ; let not our 
hope be vain. 



COMMON PRAYER. 

And we worship thy name, 
ever, world without end. 

Vouchsafe, O Lord, to keep us 
this day without sin. 

O Lord, have mercy upon us, 
have mercy upon us. 

O Lord, let thy mercy be upon 
us ; as our trust is in thee 

O Lord, in thee have 1 trusted 
let me never be confounded. 

Day by day we magnify thee, 



The Briierh.eite, or Cuvticle of the 
Three Children. Daniel iii. 

All ye works of the Lord, bless 
the Lord ; praise and exalt him 
above all, forever. 

O all ye angels of the Lord, 
bless the Lord ; O ye heavens, 
bless the Lord. 



O all ye waters that are above 
the heavens, bless the Lord ; O 
all ye powers of the Lord bless 
the Lord. 



O ye sun and moon, bless the 
Lord ; O ye stars of heaven, bless 
the Lord. 



Benedicile, omnia opera Domini. 

O All ye Works of the Lord, 
bless ye the Lord ; praise him, 
and magnify him for ever. 

O ye Angels of the Lord, bless 
ye the Lord ; praise him, and 
magnify him for ever. 

O ye Heavens, bless ye the 
Lord : praise him, and magnify 
hi in for ever. 

O ye Waters that be above the 
Firmament, bless ye the Lord ; 
praise him, and magnify him for 
ever. 

O all ye Towers of the Lord, 
bless ye the Lord ; praise him, 
and magnify him fur ever. 

O ye Sun and Moon, bless ye 
the Lord ; praise him, and mag- 
nify him for ever. 

O ye Stars of Heaven, bless ye 



APPENDIX. 



433 



MASS BOOK. 



O every shower and dew, bless 
ye the Lord ; O all ye spirits of 
God, bless the Lord. 



O ye fire and heat, bless the 
Lord ; O ye cold and heat, bless 
the Lord. 



O ye dews and hoary frost, bless 
the Lord ; O ye frost and cold 
bless the Lord. 



O ye ice and snow, bless the 
Lord ; O ye nights and days bless 
the Lord. 



O ye light and darkness, bless 
the Lord ; O ye lightnings and 
clouds, bless the Lord. 



O let the earth bless the Lord ; 
let it praise and exalt him above 
all, forever. 

O ye mountains and hills, bless 
the Lord ; O all ye things that 
spring up in the earth, bless the 
Lord. 



O ye fountains bless the Lord ; 
O ye seas and rivers, bless the 
Lord. 



O ye whales, and all that move 
in the waters, bless the Lord ; O 
all ye fowls of the air, bless the 
Lord. 

37 



COMMON PRAYER. 

the Lord : praise him, and mag- 
nify him for ever. 

O ye Showers and Dew, bless 
ye the Lord ; praise him, and 
magnify him for ever. 

O ye Winds of God, bless ye- 
the Lord ; praise him, and mag- 
nify him for ever. 

O ye Fire and Heat, bless ye 
the Lord ; praise him, and mag- 
nify him for ever. 

O ye Winter and Summery 
bless ye the Lord ; praise him and 
magnify him for ever. 

O ye Dews and Frosts, bless 
ye the Lord ; praise him, and 
magnify him for ever. 

O ye Frost and Cold, bless ye 
the Lord ; praise him, and mag- 
nify him for ever. 

O ye Ice and Snow, bless ye- 
the Lord ; praise him, and mag- 
nify him for ever. 

O ye Nights and Days, bless- 
ye the Lord ; praise him, and 
magnify him for ever. 

O ye Light and Darkness, bless 
ye the Lord ; praise him, and 
magnify him for ever. 

O ye Lightnings and Clouds, 
bless ye the Lord ; praise him r 
and magnify him for ever. 

O let the Earth bless the Lord ; 
yea, let it praise him, and mag- 
nify him for ever. 

O ye Mountains and Hills, 
bless ye the Lord; praise him, 
and magnify him for ever. 

O all ye green Things upon 
Earth, bless ye the Lord ; praise 
him, and magnify him for ever. 

O ye Wells, bless ye the Lord ; 
praise him, and magnify him for 
ever. 

O ye Seas and Floods, bless ye 
the Lord ; praise him, and mag- 
nify him for ever. 

O ye Whales, and all that 
move in the Waters, bless ye the 
Lord ; praise him, and magnify 
him for ever. 



434 



APfENDIX. 



MASS BOOK. 



O all ye beasts and cattle, bless 
the Lord ; O ye sons of men bless 
the Lord. 



O let Israel bless the Lord ; let 
them praise him and exalt him 
above all, forever. 

O ye priests of the Lord, bless 
the Lord; O ye servants of the 
Lord, bless the Lord. 



O ye spirits and souls of the 
just, bless the Lord ; O ye holy 
and humble of heart, bless the 
Lord. 

O Ananias, Azarius, and Misa- 
el, bless ye the Lord ; praise and 
exalt him above all, forever. 

Let us bless the Father, and 
the Son, with the holy Ghost; let 
us praise him and magnify him 
forever. 

Blessed art thou, O Lord, in 
the firmament of heaven, and wor- 
thy of praise, and glorious and 
magnified forever. 



COMMON PRAYER. 

O all ye Fowls of the Air, bless 
ye the Lord ; praise him, and 
magnify him for ever. 

O all ye Beasts and Cattle, 
bless ye the Lord ; praise him, 
and magnify him for ever. 

O ye Children of Men, bless 
ye the Loid; praise him, and 
magnify him for ever. 

O let Israel bless the Lord ; 
praise him, and magnify him for 
ever. 

O ye Priests of the Lord, bless 
ye the Lord ; praise him, and 
magnify him for ever. 

O ye Servants of the Lord, 
bless ye the Lord ; praise him, 
and magnify him for ever. 

O ye Spirits and Souls of the 
righteous, bless ye the Lord ; 
praise him, and magnify him for 
ever. 

O ye holy and humble Men of 
heart, bless ye the Lord ; praise 
him, and magnify him for ever. 



CREEDS. 

The creeds are both taken entire from the Roman Catholic 
ritual. 



The Apostles' Creed. 

I believe in God, the Father 
Almighty, Creator of heaven and 
earth ; and in Jesus Christ, his 
only Son, our Lord, who was con- 
ceived by the Holy Ghos 4 , born of 
the Virgin Mary, suffer d under 
Pontius Pilate, was crucified, dead 
and buried : he descended into 
hell : the third day he rose again 
from the dead . he ascended into 
heaven, and sitteth at the right 
hand of God, the Father Almigh- 



The Apostles' 1 Creed. 

I believe in God the Father 
Almighty, Maker of Heaven and 
Earth : 

And in Jesus Christ hs only 
Son our Lord ; Who was con- 
ceived by the Holy Ghost, Born 
of the Virgin Mary, Suffered un- 
der Pontius Pilate, Was crucified, 
dead, and buried ; He descended 
into Hell ; The third day he rose 
from the dead : He ascended into 
Heaven, And sitteth on the right 



APPENDIX. 



435 



MASS BOOK. 

ty : from thence he will come to 
judge the living and the dead. I 
believe in the Holy Ghost, the 
Holy Catholic Church, the Com- 
munion of saints, the forgiveness 
of sins, the resurrection of the bo- 
dy, and life everlasting. — Amen. 



COMMON PRAYER. 

hand of God the Father Almighty; 
From thence he shall come to 
judge the quick and the dead. 

1 believe in the Holy Ghost ; 
The Holy Catholic Church; The 
communion of Saints ; The for- 
giveness of sins ; The resurrec- 
tion of the body, And the life 
everlasting. Amen. 



The Nicene Creed. 

I believe in one God, The Fa- 
ther Almighty, Maker of heaven 
and earth, and of all things, visi- 
ble and invisible. 

And in one Lord Jesus Christ, 
the only begotten Son of God : 
and born of the Father before all 
ages; God of God, Light of Light, 
true God of true God; begotten, 
not made ; consubstantial to the 
Father, by whom all things were 
made : who, for us men, and for 
our salvation, came down from 
heaven, and was incarnate by the 
Holy Ghost, of the Virgin Mary, 
and was made man : was crucified 
also for us, suffered under Ponti- 
us Pilate, and was buried ; and 
the third day he rose again, ac- 
cording to the Scriptures ; and as- 
cended into heaven ; sitteth at 
the right hand of the Father ; and 
shall come again with glory, to 
judge bath the living and the dead; 
of whose kingdom there shall be 
no end. 

And in the Holy Ghost, the 
Lord and Giver of life ; who pro- 
ceedeth from the Father and the 
Son ; who, together with the Fa- 
ther and the son, is adored and 
glorified ; who spoke by the Pro- 
phets. And one holy Catholic and 
Apostolic Church. I confess one 
Baptism for the remission of sins. 
And T expect the resurrection of 
the dead, and the life of the world 
to come. Amen. 



The Nicene Creed. 

I believe in one God, the Fa- 
ther Almighty, Maker of Heaven 
and Earth, and of all things vis- 
ible and invisible : 

And in one Lord Jesus Christ, 
the only begotten Son of God, 
begotten of his Father before all 
worlds ; God of God, Light of 
Light, very God of very God, be- 
gotten, not made, being of one 
substance with the Father, by 
whom all things were made ; who 
for us men, and for our salvation, 
came down from Heaven, and 
was incarnate by the Holy Ghost 
of the Virgin Mary, and was 
made man, and was crucified also 
for us under Pontius Pilate. He 
suffered and was buried, and the 
third day he rose again, accord- 
ing to the Scriptures, and ascend- 
ed into Heaven, and sitteth on 
the right hand of the Father ; 
and he shall come again, with 
glory, to judge both the quick 
and the dead ; whose kingdom 
shall have no end. 

And I believe in the Holy 
Ghost the Lord and giver of life, 
who proceedeth from the Father 
and the Son ; who with the Fa- 
ther and the Son together is 
worshipped and glorified, who 
spake by the prophets. And 1 
believe in one Catholic and Apos- 
tolic Church. I acknowledge 
one Baptism for the remission of 
sins; and I look for the resurrec- 
tion of the dead, and the life of 
the world to come. Amen. 



436 



APPENDIX. 



SALUTATION. 



MASS BOOK. 

The Lord be with you ; 
Jlns. And with thy Spirit. 



COMMON PRAYER. 

The Lord be with you ; 
Jins. And with thy Spirit. 



THE LITANY. 

The Litany is little else than a transcript and amplification 
of the Roman Catholic Litany of the saints, blended with the 
Litany of Jesus. 

Lord have mercy upon us. 
Christ have mercy upou us. 
Christ hear us. 
Christ listen to us. 
Father of heaven, God, have 
mercy upon us. 



Oh God, the Son, redeemer of 
the world have mercy upon us. 

O God, the Holy Ghost, have 
mercy upon us. 



Holy trinity, 
mercy upon us. 



one God, have 



Holy Mary, pray for us. 
Holy mother of God pray for us. 
Saint Michael pray for us. etc. 
Be gracious to us, spare us 
Lord. 

Be gracious to us, hear us, God. 
From all evil ; 

Deliver us Lord. 
From all sin ; 

Deliver us. 
From thy wrath ; 

Deliver us. 
From sudden and unprovided 
death ; 

Deliver us. 
From the snares of the devil ; 

Deliver us. 
From wrath, hatred and all evil 
desires } 

Deliver us. 



From the spirit of fornication ; 
Deliver us. 



Oh God, the father of heaven, 
have mercy upon us, miserable 
sinners. 

Oh God, the Son, redeemer of 
the world, have mercy upon us 
miserable sinners. 

O God, the holy Ghost, pro- 
ceeding from the father and the 
Son, have mercy upon us misera- 
ble sinners. 

O holy, blessed, and glorious 
trinity, three persons and one 
God, have mercy upon us misera- 
ble sinners. 



Remember not, Lord, our of- 
fences, nor the offences of our 
forefathers ; neither take thou 
vengeance of our sins. 

Spare us, good Lord spare thy 
people, whom thou hast redeem- 
ed with thy most precious blood, 
and be not angry with us forever ; 
Spare ws, Good Lord. 

From all evil and mischief, 
from sin ; from the crafts and as- 
saults of the devil, from thy wrath, 
and from everlasting damnation ; 
Good Lord deliver us. 

From all blindness of heart, 
from pride, vain glory, and hypo- 
crisy, from envy, hatred and mal- 
ice, and all uncharitableness ; 

Good Lord deliver us. 

From all inordinate and sinful 
affections, from all the deceits of 



APPENDIX. 



437 



MASS BOOK. 



From lightning and tempest ; 

Deliver us. 
From everlasting death ; 

Deliver us. 

By the mystery of thy holy in- 
carnation ; Deliver us. 
By thine advent ; 

Deliver us. 
By thy nativity ; 

Deliver us. 
By thy baptism and holy fast- 
ing; Deliver us. 
By thy cross and passion ; 

Deliver us Lord. 
By thy death and burial ; 

Deliver us Lord. 
By thine admirable resurrec- 
tion ; Deliver us. 
By the coming of the Holy 
Ghost, the Paraclete ; 

Deliver us. 
In the day of judgment ; 

Deliver us. 

We sinners beseech thee to hear 
us. 

That thou wouldst spare ; 

We, beseech thee. 
That thou wouldst deign to 
lead us to true repentance ; 

We beseech thee. 
That thou wouldst deign to 
grant peace and true concord to 
christian kings and princes ; 

We beseech thee. 



That thou wouldst deign to pre- 
serve the apostolical master, and 
all the ecclesiastical ranks in our 
sacred religion ; 

We beseech thee to hear us. 
That thou wouldst deign to 
humble all the enemies of the ho- 
ly church ; 

We beseech thee to hear us. 

37* 



COMMON PRAYER. 

the world, the flesh, and the 
devil ; 

Good Lord deliver us. 

From lightning and tempest, 

from plague, pestilence and lam- 

ine, from battle and murder, and 

from sudden death ; 

Good Lord deliver us. 
By the mystery of thy holy in- 
carnation, by thy holy nativity, 
and circumcision, by thy baptism, 
fasting and temptation ; 

Good Lord deliver us. 



By thine agony and bloody 
sweat, by thy cross and passion, 
by thy precious death and burial, 
by thy glorious resurrection and 
ascension, and by the coming of 
the Holy Ghost. 

Good Lord deliver us. 

In all time of our tribulation, 
in all time of our prosperity, in 
the hour of death, and in the day 
of judgement ; 

Good Lord deliver us. 

We sinners, do beseech thee to 
hear us, O Lord God, and that it 
may please thee to rule and gov- 
ern thy holy church universal, in 
the right way ; 

We beseeeh thee to hear us. Good 
Lord. 

That it would please thee to 
bless and preserve all Christian 
rulers and magistrates : giving 
them grace to execute justice and 
to maintain truth ; 
We beseech thee to hear us, Good 
Lord. 

That it would please thee to 
illuminate all bishops, priests and 
deacons with true knowledge and 
understanding of thy word, that 
both by their preaching and liv- 
ing they may set it forth and 
show it accordingly ; 
We beseech thee to hear us, Good 
Lord. 



438 



APPENDIX. 



MASS BOOK. 

That thou wouldst deign to la- 
vish on the whole christian peo- 
ple, peace and unity, we beseech 
thee. 



Son of God, we beseech thee. 

O Lamb of God who takest 
away the sins of the world ; 

Spare us, Lord. 

Oh Lamb of God who takest 
away the sins of the world, listen 
to us, Lord. 

Oh Lamb of God who takest 
away the sins of the world, have 
mercy upon us. 

Oh Christ hear us. 

Lord, have pity on us. 

Christ, have pity on us. 

Lord, have pity on us. 



COMMON PRAYER. 

That it may please ihee to bless 
and keep all thy people ; 
We beseech thee to hear us, Good 
Lord. 

That it may please thee to give 
to all nations unity, peace and 
concord ; 

We beseech thee to hear us, Good 
Lord 
Son of God, we beseech thee to 
hear us. 

Oh Lamb of God, who takest 
away the sins of the world, grant 
us thy peace. 

Oh Lamb of God, who takest 
away the sins of the world, have 
mercy upon us. 



Oh Christ, hear us. 
Lord, have mercy upon us. 
Christ have mercy upon us. 
Lord have mercy upon us. 



The Episcopal church not only observes almost all of the 
holy days, festivals and fasts of the Roman Catholic Church, 
but it copies from the " Mass book" with little variation many 
of the collects and lessons for those days. 



The Epiphany. 

O God, who by the direction of 
a star, didst this day manifest thy 
only Son to the Gentiles ; merci- 
fully grant that we, who now 
know thee by faith, may come, at 
length, to see the glory of thy ma- 
jesty ; through the same Jesus 
Christ, etc. 

First Sunday after Epiphany 
According to thy divine mercy, 
O Lord, receive the vows of thy 
people, who pour forth their 
prayers to thee ; that they may 
know what their duty requireth 
of them, and be able to comply 
with what they know ; through 
Jesus Christ, thy Son, etc. 



The Epiphany. 
O God, who by the leading of 
a Star di-lst manifest thy only be- 
gotten Son to the Gentiles ; mer- 
cifully grant that we, who know 
thee now by faith, may after this 
life have the fruition of thy glo- 
rious Godhead, through Jesus 
Christ our Lord. Amen. 

First Sunday after Epiphany. 

O Lord, we beseech thee mer- 
cifully to receive the prayers of 
thy people who call upon thee ; 
and grant that they may both per- 
ceive and know what things they 
ought to do, and also may have 
grace and power faithfully to ful- 
fil the same, through Jesus Christ 
our Lord. Amen. 



APPENDIX. 



439 



MASS BOOK. 

Second Sunday after Epiphany. 

O Almighty and eternal God, 
Supreme Ruler both of heaven 
and earth, mercifully give ear to 
the prayers of thy people, and 
grant us peace in our time ; 
through Jesus Christ thy Son, 
our Lord, etc. 

Third Sunday after Epiphany. 

O almighty and eternal God, 
mercifully regard our weakness, 
and stretch foith the right hand 
of thy majesty to protect us ; 
through Jesus Christ, etc. 



Septuagesima. 

Mercifully hear, we beseech 
thee, O Lord, the prayers of thy 
people ; that we, who are justly 
afflicted for our sins, may merci- 
fully be delivered, for the glory of 
thy name ; through Jesus Christ, 
etc. 



Third Sunday after Easter. 

O God, who showest the light 
of thy truth to such as go astray, 
that they may return to the way 
of righteousness ; grant that all 
who profess the Christian name, 
may forsake whatever is contrary 
to that profession, and closely 
pursue what is agreeable to it ; 
through, etc. 



Trinity Sunday. 

O almighty and everlasting God 
who hast granted thy servants, 
in the confession of the true faith, 
to acknowledge the glory of an 
eternal Trinity, and, in the pow- 



COMMON PRAYER. 

Second Sunday after Epiphany. 

Almighty and everlasting God, 
who dost govern all things in 
heaven and earth ; mercifully 
hear the supplications of thy peo- 
ple, and grant us thy peace all the 
days of our life, through Jesus 
Christ our Lord. Amen. 

Third Sunday after Epiphany. 

Almighty and everlasting God, 
mercifully look upon our infirmi- 
ties, and in all our dangers and 
necessities stretch forth thy right 
hand to help and defend us, 
through Jesus Christ our Lord. 
Amen. 

Septuagesima. 
O Lord, we beseech thee fa- 
vorably to hear the prayers of 
thy people, that we who are just- 
ly punished for our offences, may 
be mercifully delivered by thy 
goodness, for the glory of thy 
name, through Jesus Christ our 
Saviour, who liveth and reigneth 
with thee and the Holy Ghost, 
ever one God, world without end. 
A men. 

Third Sunday after Easter. 

Almighty God, who showest 
to them that are in error the light 
of thy truth, to the intent that 
they may return into the way of 
righteousness ; grant unto all 
those who are admitted into the 
fellowship of Christ's religion, 
that they may avoid those things 
that are contrary to their profes- 
sion, and follow all such things as 
are agreeable to the same, through 
our Lord Jesus Christ. Amen. 

Trinity- Sunday. 

Almighty and everlasting God, 
who hast given unto us thy ser- 
vants grace, by the confession of 
a true faith, to acknowledge the 
glory of the eternal Trinity, and 



440 



APPENDIX. 



MASS BOOK. 



er of majesty, to adore an Unity ; 
we beseech thee, that by the 
strength of this faith we may 
be defended from all adversity ; 
through, etc. 



St. Michael, the Archangel. 

O God, who by a wonderful or- 
der, has regulated the employ- 
ments of angels and men; grant 
that those, who are always minis- 
tering before thee in heaven, may 
defend our lives here on earth ; 
through Jesus Christ, etc. 



Preface on Ascension day. 
It is truly meet, and just, right, 
and available, that we always, 
and in all places, give thanks to 
thee, Oholy Lord, Father Almigh- 
ty, eternal God ; through Christ 
our Lord ; who, after his resur- 
rection, manifested himself to all 
his Disciples, and in their pres- 
ence ascended into heaven, to 
make us partakers of his divinity. 
And therefore with the Angels 
and Archangels, with the thrones 
and dominations, and with all the 
militia of the heavenly host, we 
sing the hymn of thy glory ; say- 
ing, without end : 

Holy, holy, holy Lord God of Sa- 
baoth. The heavens and the earth 
are full of thy glory. Hosannah 
in the highest. Blessed is he that 
comes in the name of the Lord. 
Hosannah in the highest. 



COMMON PRAYER. 

in the power of the divine Ma- 
jesty to worship the Unity ; we 
beseech that thou wouldest keep 
us steadfast in this faith, and ever- 
more defend us from all adversi- 
ties, who livest and reignest, one 
God, world without end. Amen. 

Saint Michael and all Angels. 
O Everlasting God, who hast 
ordained and constituted the ser- 
vices of Angels and men in 
a wonderful order ; mercifully 
grant, that as thy holy Angels al- 
ways do thee service in heaven ; 
so by thy appointment, they may 
succor and defend us on earth, 
through Jesus Christ our Lord. 
Amen. 

Preface on Ascension day. 

It is very meet, right, and our 
bounden duty, that we should at 
all times, and in all places, give 
thanks unto thee, O Lord, [Holy 
Father,] Almighty everlasting 
God. 

Through thy most dearly belov- 
ed Son Jesus Christ our Lord ; 
who, after his most glorious res- 
urrection, manifestly appeared to 
all his apostles, and in their sight 
ascended up into heaven, to pre- 
pare a place for us ; that where 
he is, thither we might also as- 
cend, and reign with him in glory : 

Therefore with Angels and 
Archangels, and with all the com- 
pany of heaven, we laud and mag- 
nify thy glorious name; ever- 
more praising thee, and saying, 
Holy, holy, holy, Lord God of 
Hosts, heaven and earth are full 
of thy glory : Glory be to thee, 
O Lord Most High. Amen. 



In making the above comparison, we have only used the 
Mass Book or Roman Catholic Manual in common use in the 
United States. But we have seen enough to illustrate the po- 
pish character of the liturgy of the Episcopal church. To 



APPENDIX. 441 

what extent this comparison might be carried by reference to 
all the liturgical books of the Roman Catholics, we are not in- 
formed. But the commissioners who formed the Book of Com- 
mon Prayer, under Edward VI, with Archbishop Cranmer at 
their head, themselves declare, that "everything sound and 
valuable in the Romish Missal and Breviary was transferred by 
them without scruple, to the English Communion Service and 
to the Common Prayer." The commissioners who were ap- 
pointed by Charles II, A. D. 1661 to revise the liturgy also say, 
"We humbly desire that it maybe considered that our first 
reformers, out of their great wisdom, did at that time compose 
the liturgy so as to win upon the papists and to draw them into 
their church communion, by verging as little as they could 
from the Romish forms before in use." 

From the first introduction of the English liturgy in 1548, 
there was a steady return to the superstitions of Popery. So 
that the Papists themselves boasted " that the book was a com- 
pliance with them in a great part of their service ; so were not 
a little confirmed in their superstition and idolatry, expecting 
rather a return to them, than endeavoring the reformation of 
themselves." This return to the Popish service became SO 

striking in the reign of Elizabeth, that a body of divines was 
appointed by the Lords in 1641, to take into consideration cer- 
tain " Innovations in the doctrine and discipline of the Church 
of England." Among the "innovations in discipline" are 
enumerated the following: 

" 1. The turning of the holy table altar-wise, and most com- 
monly calling it altar. 

" 2. Bowing towards it, or towards the East, many times, 
with three congees, etc. 

" 3. Advancing candlesticks m many churches upon the altar 
so called. 

" 4. In making canopies over the altar, so called, with tra- 
verses and curtains on each side and before it. 

"5. In compelling all communicants to come up before the 
rails, and there to receive. 

" 6. In advancing crucifixes and images upon the altar-cloth 
so called. 

" 7. In reading some part of Morning Prayer at the holy table 
when there is no communion celebrated. 

" 8. By the minister's turning his back to the West, and his 



442 APPENDIX. 

face to the East, when he pronounceth the creed, or reads 
prayers. 

" 9. By pretending for their innovations the injunctions and 
advertisements of Queen Elizabeth, which are not in force, etc. 

" 10. By prohibiting a direct prayer before sermon, and bid- 
ding of prayer." 

In addition to the above "innovations" exceptions are made 
to the change in the vestments of the clergy, to the sign of the 
cross in baptism, to the absolution of the sick and the burial 
service — " the sure and certain hope of resurrection to eternal 
life." 

The intelligent reader cannot fail to notice the striking simi- 
larity, we might almost say the perfect identity of these innova- 
tions with those which the Puseyite party are renewing in the 
Episcopal church. What is all this mighty movement of that 
party but another revival of Popish superstition ? It is another 
return to Popery; another sad illustration of the strong affini- 
ties which have ever subsisted between the church of Eng- 
land and the church of Rome. 

" Of all Protestant churches," remarks the learned author of 
Horae Rihlie.ae, himself a distinguished civilian and a Roman 
Catholic, " the National church of England most nearly resem- 
bles the church of Rome. It has retained much of the dogma, 
and much of the discipline of Roman Catholics. Down to the 
sub-deacon it has retained the whole of their hierarchy ; and, 
like them, has its deans, rural deans, chapters, prebends, arch- 
deacons, rulers and vicars; a liturgy, taken in a great measure, 
from the Roman Catholic liturgy, and composed like that, of 
Psalms, Canticles, the three Creeds, Litanies, Gospels, Epistles, 
prayers and responses. Both churches have the sacraments of 
Baptism and the Eucharist, the absolution of the sick, the bu- 
rial service, the sign of the cross in baptism, the reservation of 
confirmation, and order [ordination] to bishops, the difference 
of Episcopal and sacerdotal dress, feasts and fasts." 

We know indeed that the Articles of the Church of England 
strongly protest against the errors of Popery, and assert the 
doctrines of the Reformation. And this is another verification 
of the famous declaration of Lord Chatham, that the Church of 
England has " a Calviuistic creed, a Popish liturgy, and an Ar- 
minian clergy." 



SCRIPTURAL INDEX. 



Genesis 9 : 25—28 
Numbers 6: 24—27 
Joshua 6: 26 
1 Sam. 14 : 24 
1 Kino-s 16 : 34 . 
Psalms 22 : 19 
Ecclesiastes 5 : 6 
Joel 3:3 
Nahum 3: 10 
Zephaniah 3:3 
Haggai 1:13 
Malachi 2 : 7 
Matthew 6: 9—13 

20 : 25—28 

27: 35 . 

Mark 10 : 16 . 

10 : 42—45 

15: 24 . 

Luke 11 : 2—4 , 

23: 34 . 

24 : 50. 51 

John 3 : 10 . 

4 : 21, 24 

19 : 24 . 

Acts 1 : 15—34 . 




13: 17 



Page. 

. 412 

413 

. 412 

412 

. 412 

54 

. 157 

54 

. 54 

186 

157, 158, 159 

157, 15b, 159 

. 325 

29 

. 54 

415 

. 29 

54 

. 325 

54 

. 415 

158 

. 346 

54 

. 391 

54 

. 312 

365 

. 364 

302 

. 32 

3! 2 

28, 33, 56 

3! )2 

. 248 

299 

. 248 

21)9 

. 247 

32 

. 33 

32 

157, 158 

45 



Acts 13 : 40, 41 
14 : 23 . 

15: 1 . 

15: 29—33 

16 : 25 

- 17 : 22 . 



Page. 

. 3i)3 

33, 59, 63 

33,48 

33 

. 365 

393 



20: 17 124,126,184,222,223 



20: 17—28 
20: 18 
20: 24 
20: 28 



1 Cor. 1 
2 

3 

6 

5 

5 

6 



255 

393 

. 395 

396 

. 32 

31 

. 30 

33 

. 34 

36 

. 36 

32 

. 157 

125 

. 33 

336 

. 365 

158 

. 57 

, 33, 57 

. 32 

23 

15, 332 

18 

. 158 

158 

. 158 

365, 378 

Philippics 1: 1 32,57,184,222,2:5 



10 

1 . 

5 

1 . 

4 

3—5 

5 
11 : 13—16 
12: 28 
14 : 26 . 
16 : 3, 4 

14 : 16 

14: 26 

14: 29,32,37 



2 Cor. 8: 19 

8 : 23 . 

9: 1 



Galatians 3 : 3 
Ephesians, 4 : 11 

4: 13—16 

2 : 20 . 

3:5. 

4: 11 

5: 19 



2: 25 
4: 3 



Coll s^ians 1 : 7 

3: 16 . 

4: 10 



1 Thessalonians 1 : 1 

3: 2 

4: 1 . 



33, 222 

156 

. 57 

365 

57, 156 

57, 16 

. 57 

32 



444 



INDEX OF AUTHORS. 



1 Thessalonians 5 
5 : 12 . 

2 Thessalonians 1 
1 Timothy 1 : 1 
3:16 



1—7 . 

14 . 

21 

17 . 
2 Timothy 1:6. 

2 : 24, 25 

2: 11—13 

Titus 1 : 5—9 

1 : 6—10 

Hebrews 2 : 17 . 

3: 1 . 

4: 14 

5: 10 . 

10: 25 . 



: 21 .32 

124 

: 1 . 57, 156 

366 

. 366 

180, 221 

127, 131,223 

. 127, 178, 184 

. 30 

127 

. 178 

30 

. 266 

166,184,215,220 

131 

. 415 

415 

. 415 

415 

. 40 



Hebrews 13: 7, 17,24 
James 2 : 1 

2: 2 . 

1 Peter 2 : 9 
5:2 . 



-5: 2,3 
-5: 13 . 



12 

1 

1 



2 John 1 

3 John 1:1. 
Revelation 1 : 4 — 8 

2: 8 . 

4: 8 

5 : 9—14 . 

1 1 : 15—19 

15: 3 . 

21 : 1—8 

22 : 10—18 . 



124 

. 32 

40 

. 77 

396 

. 128 

. 57, 156 

. 156 

130, 183 

. 184 

184 

165 

. 366 
366 

. 366 
366 

. 366 
366 



INDEX OP AUTHORITIES. 



Agath. Cone, 254, 286. 
Allgemeine Kirchenzeit., 25. 
Ambrose, Opera, 179,180,371,372. 
Ammianus Marcellinus, 406. 
Ancyra, Cone, 179, 414. [292. 
Antioch, Cone, 62, 73, 277, 279, 
Aquinas, Thos. Summa, 3, 423. 
Aries, Cone, 75. 
Arnold's Christian Life, 275. 
Wahre-Abbildungder Ers- 

ten. Christ., 4to., 28, 293. 
Athanasius, Apol., 209, De Syno- 

do Arimin , 269. 
Augnsti. Denkwiirdigkeiten, 364, 

371 , 372, 383, 384, 3b6, 3b7, 416. 
Augustine. Ep., 67, 74, 149. 

1_ Opera, 179, 182, 219, 326, 

372, 374, 3b 1 . 

Arelat. Cone, 277, 278, 296, 410. 

B 

Barcelona, Cone, 62. 

Barnes' Apostolical Church, 155. 

Barrow, Dr., on Pope's Suprem- 
acy, 50, 105,261. 

Basil, the Great, 294, 339, 344, 
349,371. 



Baudry's Selections, 63. 
Bauingarten, Erlauter. Christ. 

Alt., 116, 163. 
Beausobre, 155. 
Bengel, Erklar. Offenbarung., 

161. 
Bernaldus, Constantiensis, 225. 
Beza, on Acts 14 : 23, 63. 
Bibles, Swiss, French, Italian, 

etc., on Acts 14 : 23, 63. 
Bingham, 67, 6<>, 72, 75,227, 338. 
Blondell, on Elections, 70. 
Apologia pro Hieron., 163, 

190, 227, 351 . 
Bohmer, J H., Diss., Juris Ec- 

cles. Antiq., 97, 155, 257, 396. 
— Jus. Protestant., 416. 



Bohmer, W., Alterthumswissen- 

chaft, 72, 78, 124, 254. 
Bower's, Gesch der Piipste, 312. 
Bowden's Works, 130. 
Bowdler's Apostolical Succession, 

143,155, 196, 197. 
Bracar., Cone , 254, 286, 304. 
Bull, Bishop, Defensio Fid. Nie, 

369. 
Burnet's History of Reformation, 

192. 



INDEX OF AUTHORS. 



445 



Burton's History of the Christian 
Church, 50, 199, 202. 

C 

Campbell's Lectures on Ecci.Hist. 

152, 156,161 ,165,202,203,248,261 . 
Canons, Apostolical, 62, 273, 277. 
Carthag. Cone, 254, 277. 
Chapman, in Smyth's Presbytery 

and Prelacy, 130. 
Chalcedon, Cone, 73, 277, 292. 
Chrysostom, Horn, ad Act. 1. p. 

55, ad Cor. 102. 
Works, 149, 152, 163, 220, 

221, 289, 306, 371, 372, 374, 419. 
Christian Observer for 1804, 354. 
Clarkson's Primitive Episcopacy, 

110, 211, 212, 234. 
Clarkson, Dis. on Liturgies, 344, 

349, 351. 
Clement of Alexandria, 149, 172, 

173, 327, 348, 371. 
Clemens, Romanus, Ep. ad Co- 
rinth. 33, 35, 48, 62, 64, 96, 164, 

327. 
Codex Ecelesiae Africanae, 62. 
Coleman's Christian Antiquities, 

137, 189, 267, 272, 290, 291, 

370, 408. £192. 

Conder's Non- Conformity ^ 141, 
Constitutions, Apostolical, 149, 

260, 414. 
Constitution and Canons of the 

Epis. Chureh, 235, 409. 
Cyprian, Ep. 68 ; 66, 71, 98—101, 

103, 104, 177, 204, 206, 257, 258, 

259, 268,270, 276, 297, 339, 408. 
Cranmer, Bishop, 192. 
Croft, Bishop, 131. 
Cyril, of Jerusalem, 149. 

D 

DaiRle, ci-dessus, 155. 

D'Aubigne's History of Reforma- 
tion, 77, 254, 270, 386, 404, 405. 

De Wette, Aets 14: 23, 63. 

Diodati, on Aets 14: 23, 63. 

Du Pin, Antiqua Ecelesiae Dis- 
ciplina, 52, 98, 103, 105. 

Sac. Geog. Africa., 207, 



208. 



E 



Echell. Abr. Eutychius Vindica- 
tor 188. 

38 



Edin. Rev., 213, 214. 

Eichhorn, Can. Recht., 269. 

Epiphanius, 149, 301. 

Eliberis, Council, 269,273, 296. 

Ephraem, the Syrian, 384. 

Erasmus' Works, 138. 

Eschenburg, Versuch, Religions- 
vortrage, 396. 

Eutychius of Alexandria, 187, 188. 

Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History, 
33,71, 81, 103, 105, 138, 148, 
149, 164, 170, 171, 172, 179, 270, 
286, 289, 290, 367, 368, 371, 373, 
396. 

Vit. Const., 339, 348, 367. 



Evangelist, N. Y. 208. 



Fathers, early, on Elections, 64. 
Firmilian, 177, 257, 268, 339. 
Forbes, Bishop, 193. 
Fuehs' Bibliotheca, 113, 252, 

G 

Gabler, De Episc. Prim. Eccl., 
227, 256. 

Gangra, Cone. 279, 286, 292. 

Gerbert, Musica Sacra, 364, 372, 

Gehardi, Loci, Theolog., 139. 

Gieseler, Lehrbuch, 256, 257. 

Gieseler, Cunningham's Trans., 
60, 71, 124, 226, 258. 

Goode's Divine Rule, 178, 195. 

Gratian, 226. 

Gregory JNfazianzen, 72, 79, 163, 
225, 305. 

Greiling, Christengemeinen, 36, 
50,55. 

Gretser, De Benedictionibus, 414, 
420. 

Grossman, D., Ueber eine Re- 
formation der Protestantischen 
Kirch. Verfass. in Konigr. Sach- 
sen. 55. 

Grotius, Comment, ad Act., 11 : 
30, 45 ; 14: 23, 63. 

Tract on Lay service, 138, 



Guerike, Kirch. Gesch., 107, 254. 
256. 

H 
Haenen Exercit. De Benedic.,416. 
Hales' Works, 127. 
Hall, Bishop, 323. 
Hall Robert, 308. 



446 



INDEX OF AUTHORS. 



Hallam's Constitutional Hist., 
318,319,360,362. 

Hammond, Henr., 227. 

Hardy, Rev. Th., 290, 307. 

Hawes' Tribute, 241. 

Hawks, Rev. Dr., 235, 262. 

Hefele, C. J. ed. of Clem, ad Cor., 
64. 

Hegesippus, 149. 

Henke,Allgem. Gesch.der Christ. 
Kirch., 259, 269. 

Herder on Psalmody of the An- 
cient Church, 374, 375. 

Higginson, Rev. John, 245. 

Hilary, Comment., 178, 257, 372. 

Hooker's Ecclesiastical Polity, 
109. 

Horace, 409, 412. 

Hubbard, Rev. William, 245. 

Hullman, Urspriinge der Verfass. 
in Mittelalter, 312. 

H. W. D. of Philadelphia, 190. 

I 

Ignatius to the Philadelphians and 
Smyrneans, 62, 65, ad Phil. 109, 
204, Epistles, 198, 199, 200,204, 
205. 

Iliad XXIII, 54. 

11.77,412. 

lrenaeus' Works, 169, 170, 171, 
204,257,327. 

Isidor. Pelus , 378. 



Jerome's Works, 68, 132, 133, 149, 
183, 184, 185, 186, 187, 215,216, 
218, 219, 301, 304, 373, 378. 

Jewel, Bishop, 219. 

Justinian, 76. 

Justin Martyr, 166, 167, 168, 204, 
249, 327, 340, 342, 343, 368. 

Kino-'s Primitive Christianity, 50, 
69, 96, 98, 104, 129, 193, 203. 



Lactantius, Instit, 408. 
Lampridius, Vit. Severi,66. 
Lancey, De, Bishop, 198. 
Laodicea, Council, 209, 277, 292. 
Launcelot, J. P., 228. 
Le Bret, Gesch. Von Ital., 312. 
Leo Allatius, De Eccl. Occid. et 
Orient, 418. 



Leo the Great, 76. 

Leo VII, 293. 

Letters to the Laity, 265, 266. 

Locke on Government, 280. 

Lucian's Philopatris, 327. 

Luther's first Hymn Book, 385. 

Luther's Works, 388. 

M 

Macaulay 's Miscel., 240, 319, 362, 
411. 

Ma^on, Cone, 303. 

Magdeburg Centuriators, 110. 

Mant and d'Ogly, 155. 

Marca, Peter de, 257. 

Mason's Works, 127, 129, 155, 
217,219,261. 

Mather's Apology. 192. 

Mendoza, de Ferdin., 269. 

Meyer, on Acts 14: 23, 63. 

Miller, Rev. Dr., Letters, 192. 

Milton's Prose Works, 148, 169, 
176, 200, 239, 297, 410. 

Morinus, De Ordinat., 188. 

Mosheim, De Rebus Christiano- 
rum ante Constantinum Mag- 
num, Commentarii, 4to, 35, 48, 
49, 52, 54, 58, 59, 61 , 69, 107, 
108, 115, 250, 254, 257,270, 303, 
305. 

Mosheim, Can. Recht., 106, 256, 
259, 270. 

Hist. Eccl., 256. 

Miinscher, Handbuch der Christ. 
Dog., 258. 

Miinter, Met. Offenbar., 347, 364, 
367, 369, 373. 

N 

Neal's History of the Puritans, 
319, 360. 

Neander's Allgemeine Geschichte 
der Christlichen Religion und 
Kirche, 34, 43, 48, 57, 60, 104, 
108, 138, 254, 256, 269, 280, 373. 

Antagonisticus, 332. 

Geschichte der Pflantzung 

und Leitung der Christlichen 
Kirche, 25, 32, 35, 36. 42, 60, 
124, 131, 136, 142, 148, 155, 156, 
254, 256, 265, 396. 

Introduction to this work, 



13—23, 157. 

Necessary Erudition, 193. 



ft 



INDEX OF AUTHORS. 



447 



Neocaesarea, Cone, 62. 

Nice, Council, Can., 6, 52, 73, 273, 

277, 414. 
Nicholas Tudischus, 226. 
Norton, Prof., 199. 

O 

Observer, Christian, 144, 195, 409. 
Odyss., Homeri, 54. 
Onderdonk's Episcopacy tested, 

144, 153. 
Origen, against Celsus, 65. 

Homily on Levit , 65. 

Com. in Math., 101, 111, 

112. 

De Orat., 159 

Opera, 259, 325, 329, 344, 

368. 
Orleans, Cone, 76. 
Owen's Gospel Church, 56, 57. 



Paris, Cone, 78. 

Pertsch, Canon Recht., 31, 254, 

303. 
Kirchliche Historie, Vol. 

1. 31, 35, 71, 105, 254, 256, 287, 

303. 
Petavius on Eutych., of Alex., 188. 
Planck, Geschichte der Christlich- 

Kirchlichen, Gesellschafts-Ver- 

fassung, 5, Bde.. Svo., Vol. I. 

27, 31, 71, 72, 73, 106, 113, 114, 

115, 120, 189, 251,252, 254, 258, 

269, 270, 279, 283, 285, 286, 287, 

293, 296, 300, 303, 309, 311. 
Pliny's Letters, 248. 
Polycarp, Ep., to the Philippians, 

96, 165, 166, 327. 
Quien Le, on Eutychius of Al- 
exandria, 189. 
R 
Ranke's Hist, of Popes, 230. 
Recorder, Episc, 238. 
Rehkopf, Vit. Patriarch Alex.,189. 
Reland, Antiq. Sac. Vet. Heb., 

413. [188. 

Renaudot. Hist. Patriarch Alex., 
Rheinwald, Kirchliche Archaol- 

o ? ie,124, 163, 271. 
Riddle's Christian Antiquities, 67, 

69, 96, 98, 163, 165, 348. 
Chronology, 51, 71,73,73, 

81, 108, 268, 351. 



Rigaltius, 133. 

Rohr's Kritischen Predigerbiblio- 
thek, 55. 

Rothe, Die Anfange der Christli- 
chen Kirche, Vol. I. 25, 42, 43, 
46,56,58,124, 131, 136, 142, 
147, 150, 152, 155, 157, 181,, 
199, 396. 

S 
Sack, Comment. Theolog. Inst.,. 

35. 
Salvianus, 306. 
Schoene, Geschichtsforschungen 

der Kirchlichen Gebrauchen 

und Einrichtungen Christen, 

28, 131, 206, 207„208, 254, 342, 

352. 
Schroeter und Klein, Fur Chris- 

tenthum Oppositionschrift, I. 

28. 
Schoettgen, Horae Heb., 158, 160. 
Scholiast, Greek, 223. 
Schroeckh, Kirch. Gesch., 310. 
Scriptore Ecclesiastic - !, De Mu- 

sica, 377. 
Selden, Origines et Romae, cited, 

183. 
Semisch, C. on Justin, 340. 
Severus, Alex , 66. 
Sidonius Apollinar., 74, 76, 305. 
Siegel, Handbuch der Christlich. 

Kirchlichen Alterthumer, 4 Bde. 
23, 124, 252, 271, 277, 278, 283, 

416. 
Simonis,Vorlesungenuber Christ. 

Alterthum., 78. 
Siricius Ep. ad Himer., 72. 
Smyth on Presbytery and Prela- 

cy, 177. 

Eccl. Repub., 235, 265, 



276, 279, 280, 320. 

Apostolical Succession, 



131, 192. 

Presbytery and not Prela- 



cy, 130, 131, 155, 192. 
Socrates' History of the Church, 

32, 50, 67, 210, 234, 301, 404. 
Sozomen, Eccl. History, 67, 209, 

210, 286, 290, 294, 384. 
Spectator, Christian, 192. 
Spittler, Canon, Recht., 31, 254, 

256, 269. [205. 

Stillingfleet's Irenicum, 192, 193, 



448 



GENERAL INDEX. 



Suicer, on %£iqotovIo), 63. 

Thesaur., 257. 

Sulpitius, Severus, Vit. e. Marti- 
ni, 67. 
Symmachus, Ep. 75. 
Synessii, Ep. 74, 163. 



Talmud, Jerusalem, 160. 

Tarracon, Cone, 252. 

Tertullian's Apology, 65, 97, 98, 
174, 345, 346, 347, 368, 396. De 
Poenit., 103. De Pudieit., 98. 
De Fuga, 111. Ad Castitat., 
Ill, 257. De Jejun., 114. De 

« Anima, 367. De Corona, 174. 
De Bapt., 174, 339. De Prae- 
scrip., 257. De Monog., 258. 
De Oratione, 328, 329. 

Theodoret, Eccl. History, 64, 209, 
222, 371, 384. 

Theodorus Mopsues., 371. 

Theodosian, Codex, 284, 270, 300. 

Thomas de Jesu, 387. 

Tindal, on Acts 14 : 24, 63. 

Toletum, Cone, 304. 

Tracts for the Times, 121, 350. 

Trajan's Epistle, 366. 

Urban II. Pope, 225. 

Usher, Archbishop, 193, 227. 



Valentinian III. 76. 

Valesius in Euseb., 294. 

Vater and Henke, Allgem. Kirch. 

Gesch., 269. 
Venema, Institutiones Hist. Eccl., 

118. 
Vitringa, De Synagoga Vetere, 

4to., 40, 45, 46, 158, 225, 413, 

418. 

W 
Waddington's Church Hist., 165. 
Wake, Bishop, on Clem. Ep. ad 

Cor., 64. 
Walch, De Hymnis Eccl. Apost., 

365 ; Hist, der Papste, 406. 
Whately's Errors of Romanism, 

358, 364. 

Kingdom of Christ, 45, 



51, 161, 197. 
Whittaker, 193. 
Wiseman, Dr., on the Tractarian 

movement, 362. 
Witsius, De Oratione, 351. 
Xenophon's Memorabilia, 133. 
Ziegler's Versuch der Kirchlich- 

en Verfassungsformen, 124,252, 

256, 283, 293, 309, 311, 312. 
Zunz, Die Gottesdienstlichen 

Vortrage der Juden., 160. 



GENERAL INDEX. 



Admission to the church, mode 
of, 112. m 

"jlyyalos rrjg ittxlTjaiag, 157 — 159. 

Alexandria, mother church, 253. 

Ambrose chosen bishop, 67, 72. 

Angel of churches supposed bish- 
op, 144 ; not bishop, 157 — 161. 

Antioch, Council of, 62, 73, 277, 
279,292. 

Antistes, antistes sacrorum, 163. 

Apollos not ordained, 142, 143. 

Apostles shun the distinctions of 
rank, 30 ; disown Episcopal 
power, 31, 146; brotherly sal- 



utations, 31 ; remonstrate with 
the church, and address them as 
independent fraternity, 33 — 35, 
37; do not baptize, 137 ; their 
oversight of the churches, 150 ; 
govern them collectively, 151. 

Apostolical succession, origin of, 
298 ; derived from Romish 
church, 313. 

Archer's Speech, 279. 

"j4q%ovtss ixkI?]oio)v, 163. 

Aristocracy in elections, 76; gov- 
ern the church, 77 ; rise in the 
church, 249 — 254 ; convention- 
al, unauthorized, 251 . 



GENERAL INDEX. 



449 



Auretius, reader, 71. 

B 

Baptism by presbyters, 137. 

Barnabas the Evangelist, 157. 

Basilinopolis, 252. 

Benediction, origin and import of 
the rite, 412 ; Aaronitic, 415 ; 
apostolical, entirely unlike the 
benediction of the Jewish priest- 
hood, and that of prelacy, 416 
— 418 ; mode of administering 
the rite, 418 ; abuses of it, 419 
—426. 

Bengel, on the angel of the 
church, 160. 

Bible, a republican book, 240. 

, withheld from the laity, 289. 

Bingham, on elections, 67. 

Bishops, their office, 36 ; their 
election resisted, 73 ; not dis- 
tinguished from presbyters, 125; 
proof, 126, 163 ; plurality of, 
inadmissible, 127, 128; never 
confounded with apostles or 
deacons, 130 ; derived from 
Greek, 131 ; titles interchanged 
with presbyters, 126 sq., 163 ; 
their qualifications, 131 ; duties 
the same as those of presbyters ; 
but one in a diocese, 127, 133 ; 
no official title in the Scriptures, 
145 — 161 ; not superior in rank 
to presbyters, 145 sq. ; accord- 
ing to Clement, 164 ; to Poly- 
carp, 165 ; to Justin Martyr, 
167 ; to Irenaeus, 169; to Clem- 
ent of Alexandria, 172 ; to Ter- 
tullian,174; merely presbyters, 
193; pastors only of single par- 
ishes, 201 ; a bishop's charge 
originally a single congregation, 
201 sq.; admitted by Episcopa- 
lians, 202 sq. ; all met for wor- 
ship in the same place, 204 ; 
personally known to their bish- 
op, 205, 206 ; limited in extent, 
206 ; bishop in country towns, 
206—209 ; vast multitudes of 
them, 208, 209, note ; ascenden- 
cy of city bishops, 254 ; identi- 
cal in rank with presbyters, ac- 
cording to Jerome, 215 — 219 ; 
to Augustin, 219 ; to Chrysos- 

38* 



torn, 219, 220, 221 ; to Theodo 
ret, 222 ; to the Greek scholiast 
223 ; to Elias, archbp. of Crete 
and to Gregory Nazianzen, to 
Isidorus Hispalensis, 224, 225 
to Bernaldus Constantiensis, to 
pope Urban, to Gratian, to Nich- 
olas Tudeschus, 225, 226 ; to 
J. P. Launcelot, and to Gie- 
seler, 226 ; origin of their dis- 
tinction from presbyters, causes 
of their increasing ascendency, 
254—257 ; called priest, 258 ; 
their authority yielded by silent 
consent, 260 ; mildly exercised 
at first, 260 ; authority increas- 
ed by councils, 269 ; bishops in 
the city, their pre-eminence, 
274 ; tyranny over the clergy, 
276 ; hold the revenues of the 
church, 278; power over the 
clergy, 280 ; vast accumulation 
of their wealth, 287 ; means of 
carrying their measures, 292; 
divine rights of, 297—300 ; 
their intolerance, 292 ; their 
pride, 303; their ignorance,304. 



Campbell on the Episcopate of 
Timothy and Titus, 156. 

Canon of Valencia, 69. 

Carthage, discipline by the church 
of, 99—101. 

Causae ecclesiasticae, 285. 

Catechetical instructions favor 
Episcopacy, 272. 

Catholics, multitude of their bish- 
ops, 307. 

Chalcedon, council, 68., 

Chorepiscopus 253. 

Christ, his example, 29 ; his in- 
structions, 29; his spirit, 29; 
worshipped as divine in primi- 
tive psalmody, 368 — 370. 

Christianity, rapid spread of, 248 ; 
suffers no alliance with the state, 
307. 

Christians, styled Jews, 40. 

Chrysostom chosen bishop, 67 ; 
on bishops, 128. 

Church, primitive, first formation, 
25 ; addressed by the apostles, 
31, 32 ; modeled after the syna- 



450 



GENERAL INDEX. 



gogue, 34, 39 — 46 ; according 
to Neander, 41 ; Vitringa, 43 ; 
Whately, 43 ; name derived 
from synagogue, 40 ; kept pure, 
84 ; a religious society, for reli- 
gious ends, 229 ; no connection 
with state governments, but 
adapted to any, 230 ; restraints 
upon the clergy, 231 ; guarded 
against sectarianism, 232 ; gave 
scope to ministerial zeal, 233 ; 
preserved harmony in the cler- 
gy, 233 ; formed an efficient 
ministry, 234 ; made an efficient 
laity, 236 ; suited to our free in- 
stitutions, 239 ; sovereignty de- 
stroyed, 284 ; begins to inherit 
property by will, 287 ; corrup- 
tions of, 289. 

Church government popular, 25, 
37, 228; simple, 26, 28, 45; 
■changed, 77, 313 ; church and 
state united, 294—296. 

Church, u holy catholic," 214. 

Churches, formed alike, 60 ; bond 
of union in the apostles, 150 ; 
care of them by the apostles, 
151 ; apostolical, their ascen- 
dency, 247—254. 

Clemens, the Evangelist, 156. 

Clement of Rome, cited, 64, 
164. 

Clergy, nominations in elections, 
67 ; opposed by the people, 72 ; 
deposed by the church, 104 ; 
discipline by them, ] 13, 114; 
not prosecuting officers in the 
church, 119; two orders, 124, 
125, 127; subject to restraint, 
231, 232 ; depressed by the bish- 
op, 275; unjust privileges, 285 ; 
distinctions observed with care, 
291 ; party spirit of, 291 ; syco- 
phancy of, 293; civil and ecclesi- 
astical powers, 294 ; appeals to 
the emperor, 295 ; mercenary 
spirit, 296 ; claim divine right, 
297 — 300; persecuting spirit, 
300. 

College of presbyters, 20, 255. 

Collection sent by Saul, 146. 

Conder, on ordination, 140. 

Confederation of the church, 
114. 



Congregation, meaning of, 43. 

Congregational singing, 379, 380; 
in Germany, 381. 

Consignat, 179. 

Constantinople, council, 68. 

Cornelius, chosen bishop, 68. 

Correspondence of the churches 
and bishops, 270. 

Council of the churches with the 
apostles, 33. 

Councils, their authority denied, 
51,52; at Jerusalem, 135 ; re- 
sult not by James, 135, 136; 
their influence in forming Epis- 
copal government, 207 — 270. 

Cyprian on elections, 66, 68 ; on 
discipline by the church, 88,89. 

D 

Daille on elections, 67. 

Deacons chosen by the church, 
33, 56 ; their office, 124 ; induc- 
tion to office, 1 39 ; distinguished 
from presbyters and bishops, 145 
163. 

Declension, religious, caused by 
Episcopacy, 305 sq. 

Delegates sent by the churches, 
33, 58 ; their character, 58. 

Delegation from Antioch to Jeru- 
salem, 135, 147. 

Delegatus ecclesiae, 159. 

Delitzsch, Dr., on the angel of the 
chh., 159 sq. 

Jtdxoi'ot, 124, 168. 

Diocesan Episcopacy, 267 — 280 ; 
disfranchises the laity, 274 ; 
destroys the discipline of the 
church, 280. 

Discipline by the church, 34, 36, 
37, 88 ; argument from Scrip- 
ture, 88, 89 ; from the early fa- 
thers, 94 sq.; from ecclesiasti- 
cal writers ; from analogy, 108 ; 
usurped by the priesthood, 113, 
114; authorities, 105 — 107; at 
Carthage 100 ; at Rome, 103 ; 
in the Eastern church, 102; 
right of lost, 116 ; the right in- 
herent in the church, 117 ; ad- 
vantages of, 118 sq. ; not puni- 
tive, 117 ; neglected in the Epis- 
copal church, 121, 122, 305 ; mo- 
ral efficacy of it, 123; admin- 



GENERAL INDEX. 



451 



istered by bishops, 269, 275; 
destroyed, 279. 

Disciplina Arcani, 271 ; is an ar- 
gument against a liturgy, 348. 

Disfranchisement of the laity, 284. 

Disputes decided by the church, 
33. 

Divine right, 70,297—300; guid- 
ance, 77. 

Donatists, multitude of their bish- 
ops, 208. 

Du Pin on discipline by the church 
106; on primitive Episcopacy, 
206—209. 

Duties of bishop and presbyter 
identical, 133. 

E 

Edinburgh Review, on apostolical 
succession, 212 — 214. 

% Hys6fxai, 133. 

'Hyov/usvoc, 124. 

Elections by the church, 33, 34, 
53, 54 ; loss of, 70—81 ; of an 
apostle, 54 ; by the brethren ac- 
cording to Mosheim, Neander, 
Grossman, Rohr, 55 ; Chrysos- 
tom, 55 ; of the deacons, 56 ; 
of the delegates, 57 ; of the pres- 
byters, 58 ; usual mode of, 62 ; 
mode of resistance by the bish- 
ops, 72 ; tumultuous proceed- 
ings — efforts to correct them, 

74 ; controlled by the bishops, 

75 ; canonical, apostolical, 79 ; 
right of every church, 80 ; pre- 
serves balance of influence, 81 ; 
foundation of religious liberty, 
81 ; safeguard of the ministry, 
83; of the church, 84 ; promotes 
mutual endearments between 
pastor and people, 85 ; produces 
an efficient ministry, 86. 

Emperors, Christian, mistaken ef- 
forts to extend Christianity, 307, 
308. 

Episcopacy, primitive, 201. See 
bishops. Illustrated, 196 — 215; 
fallacious reasoning of, 210; 
rise of, 246 ; causes of it, 249 — 
262 ; summary of its rise, 259 — 
261 ; anti-republican character- 
istics, 264, 265, 318 ; growth in 
this country, 264, 265 ; illus- 



trates the rise of ancient Epis- 
copacy, 266; divine right of, 
297 — 300; introduced irreligious 
men into the ministry, 302; ori- 
gin of, in ambition, 315 ; op- 
pressive to the laity, 116, 273, 
284, 315 ; creates unjust dis- 
tinctions among the clergy, 316, 
excites bad passions, 316 ; into- 
lerant, 317 ; impairs the effica- 
cy of preaching, 356, 399, 403, 
406 — 409 ; hindrances to minis- 
terial usefulness, 234, 235; want- 
ing in liberality, 238 ; fails to 
preserve the unity of the chh., 
410 ; its tendency to supersti- 
tion, 422 ; encourages the idea 
of a vicarious religion, 423 ; en- 
courages a disposition to substi- 
tute the outward form for the 
inward spirit of religion, 425, 
426. 

Episcopal concessions on names 
of bishop and presbyter, 144. 

Episcopalians concede the identi- 
ty of bishops and presbyters, 
144 ; the validity of presbyterian 
ordination, 192, 198; unsupport- 
ed by argument, 227. 

'ETTt'oxonoi, 124, 126, 163, 164. 

3 Etigkottovvtss, 128. 

"EqjOQoi, 163. 

Eraclius, chosen bishop, 67. 

Eustathius chosen bishop, 67. 

Excommunication by the church 
— by the bishops, 114. 



Fellowship of the churches, 48 ; 
encouraged by the apostles, 150; 
interrupted by Episcopacy, 280. 

Forms of prayer opposed to the 
spirit of Christianity, 321 ; to 
the example of Christ and the 
apostles, 323, 324; unautho- 
rized by Christ and the apostles, 
325 ; contrary to the simplicity 
of primitive worship, 331 ; un- 
known in the primitive church, 
334 ; opposed to gospel freedom 
and the example and instruc- 
tions of Christ and the apostles, 
335, 339 ; opposed to the sim- 
plicity of primitive worship, 340 



452 



GENERAL INDEX. 



— 348 ; at first indited by any 
one, 348; prepared for the ig- 
norant, 349 ; not adapted to the 
desires of the worshipper, 353; 
wearisome by repetition, 353, 
354; not in harmony with the 
subject of discourse, 355. 

G 

Gangra, council, 236. 

Gifts, miraculous, 141. 

Government of the church by the 
members of it, 109 ; changes 
through which it passed, 312. 

Guidance, divine, claimed by the 
bishops, 115, 117. 

H 

Hall, Robert on church and state, 
294. 

Hands, laying on of, 140. 

Harmony in the church, 27. 

Hawes' tribute, 241. 

Hegesippus, character of James, 
149. 

Heresies punished with great se- 
verity, 300; greatly increased, 
301. 

Hierarchy, origin of, 247 ; further 
development, 267 — 280; metro- 
politan, 281 ; influence of on the 
laity — on the clergy — on moral 
state of the chh., 302, 303. 

Hilary on primitive worship, 332. 

Homilies in the primitive church, 
391 ; discourses of Peter, 391, 
392 ; of Paul, 393; characteris- 
tics of their preaching, 394, 395; 
homilies in Greek church, cha- 
racteristics, 400 — 402 ; causes 
of the forming of this style, 402 
— 405 ; homilies in the Latin 
church, 405; causes productive 
of their characteristics, 406,407. 

H. W. D. of Philadelphia, 190. 

Hymns of human composition for- 
bidden, 376. 



Identity of bishops and presbyters, 
124. See under each term bish- 
op and presbyter. 

Ignatius, his epistles suspected, 
197 ; interpolated, 198 ; unsatis- 



factory, 198, 199 ; do not sup- 
port Episcopacy, 199, 200. 

Imposition of hands, 141, 144. 

Independence of the churches, 35, 
57 — 150 ; asserted by Mosheim, 
48, 49 ; by Barrow and Dr. Bur- 
ton, 50 ; by Riddle, 51 ; by 
Whately, 51. 

Innocent 111, arrogant preten- 
sions, 79. [376. 

Instrumental music in churches, 

Interventors in elections, 75. 

Irenaeus, identity of bishops and 
presbyters, 169 — 172. 



James not bishop at Jerusalem, 
135, 136, 146; reasons for his 
residence there — his -character, 
148. 

Jerome on elections, 68 ; on bish- 
ops and presbyters, 132, 215 — 
217. 

Jerusalem, council at, 135; seat 
of the Christian religion, 148. 

Judgment, private right of, in- 
fringed, 289. 

Jury of the church, trial by, 118. 

Justin Martyr, cited, 167, 168 ; on 
primitive worship and ordinan- 
ces, 340— 344. 
L 

Laity baptize, 138 ; disfranchised, 
274 ; oppressed, 275. 

Laity and clergy, balance of pow- 
er between, 81 ; disfranchised, 
116 ; injustice to them, 284, 315; 
loss of their spiritual privileges, 
285 ; indifferent to the interests 
of the church, 287, 288; to their 
Christian fellowship, 288, 289 ; 
lose control of revenues, 286. 

Lapsed, censure of, 113. 

Laws enacted by the people, 49, 
109; right taken from them, 115, 
116. 

Legatus ecclesiae, 158. 

Letters addressed to the church, 
1 09 ; missive by the church, 110. 

Liberty, religious, loss of, 81. 

Litigations settled by the church, 
37. 

Liturgy formed by each bishop, 
48 ; unknown in the primitive 



GENERAL INDEX. 



453 



church, 321 sq., 337 ; no relics 
of any, nor record of such as 
found at this time, 338 ; appeal 
is made to tradition for such 
forms as belong to the liturgy, 
339, 340 ; liturgies the produc- 
tion of a corrupt age, 351 ; for 
an ignorant priesthood, 351 ; 
encroach upon the time which 
should be allotted to the sermon, 
356 ; exalt the inventions of 
man above the word of God, 
357 ; English liturgy of popish 
origin, 359 ; erroneous in doc- 
trine, 360. 

Lord's prayer not a prescribed 
form, 325 ; unknown as such 
by the apostles and apostolical 
fathers, 325 — 329 ; summary 
conclusions respecting it, 329 — 
331 ; unsuited to the Christian 
dispensation, 331 ; varied phra- 
seology, 324. 

Luther, a reformer by his musi- 
cal powers, 385. 

M 

S|sV», 157. 

Mareotis, supplied by presbyters, 
253. 

Mark, the Evangelist, 157. 

Martin, of Tours, chosen bishop, 
72. 

Mason, Dr. on equality of bishops 
and presbyters, 129 ; cited, 135. 

Maximianists, their bishops, 208. 

Miletius chosen bishop, 67. 

Milton's Prose Works cited, 150, 
169. 

Ministers, none superior to pres- 
byters, 145. 

Mosheim, on elections by the 
church, 60. See Index of Au- 
thorities. 

Metropolitan Government, estab- 
lished, 281 ; means of its estab- 
lishment, 282—284; results,284. 

N 
Neander, on the two great parties 

in the church, 334. See Index 

of Authorities. 
Nice, Council on Elections, 67. 
Nice, Church of jurisdiction, 253. 



O 

Offices of clergy multiplied, 290, 
291. 

Officers of the church, 35, 36. 

Onderdonk, on equality of bishops 
and presbyters, 144 ; on office 
of Timothy, 153, 154. 

Orders, but two in the priesthood, 
163. 

Ordination by presbyters, 139 — 
176 ; import of it, 141, note ; 
right of presbyters according 
to Firmilian, 177 ; to Irenaeus, 
176 ; to Hilary, 178—180 ; to 
Jerome, 183—186 ; to Euty- 
chius of Alexandria, 187 — 188 ; 
to Planck, 189 ; to Neander, 
189 ; to Blondell, 189 ; to the 
Canons, 190; to Dr. Miller,191, 
192; various Episcopal author- 
ities, 192 — 197 ; by Cranmer, 
192 ; Necessary Erudition, 193; 
Whittaker,Usher, 193; Stilling- 
fleet, Forbes, King, 193; Chris- 
tian Observer, 195 ; Goode, 
195 ; Bowdler, 197 ; Summary, 
197, 198 ; Clarkson, 211—212 ; 
by Metropolitan, 283 : by Di- 
vine Right, 298. 

Organs in Church music, 377. 

Origen, as a preacher, 400. 

1 'Oot) dvvajutg aurw, of Justin, 342, 
343. 

Overseers, name, 35. 



Papal Government, 310. 

Parochial bishops, 51 ; parochial 
system, 251. [119. 

Pastor, not a prosecuting officer, 

Pastores, 163. 

Patres ecclesiae, 163. 

Patriarchal Government, 309. 

Paul and Barnabas, ordaining 
presbyters, 62 ; in council at 
Jerusalem, 135 ; his ordination, 
143. [118. 

Peace of the church, by discipline, 

Pearson, on elections, 67. 

Penance, system of, 114; pro- 
motes the bishop's power, 271. 

Penitents, restored by the church, 
102. 

People overreached in elections, 



454 



GENERAL INDEX. 



77 ; people govern themselves 
in everything, 107, 108 ; rights 
abridged by councils, 267, 268. 

Planck on divine right, 296—298. 
See Index of Authorities. 

Uocfiatvoj, 134. 

Polycarp, cited 165, 166. 

Pontificate Romanum, 68. 

Pope of Rome, his ascendency 
established, 311. 

Praesides, praesidentes, praesules, 
163. 

Praepositi, 163. 

Prayers of the primitive church, 
321 ; See forms of prayer, 
prayers of Christ, and the apos- 
tles extempore, 323, 324, 341 ; 
Lord's prayer, 323 ; attitude in, 
341. 

Presbyters, their office, 36, 124, 
125; choice of them, 58; by 
the church, 61 ; titles, 124 ; 
equality with bishops, 124 — 162; 
addressed as bishops, 126 ; term 
derived from Jews, 131 ; appel- 
lations interchanged with bish- 
ops, 126, 162; qualifications, 131, 
166 ; duties identical with pres- 
byter, 133 ; teachers of the 
church, 134 ; counsellors, 135 ; 
administer ordinances, 136 ; or- 
dain, 139 ; distinguished from 
deacons, 163 ; equal to bishops, 
according to Clement, 164 ; to 
Polycarp, 165 ; to Justin Mar- 
tyr, 167 ; to Irenaeus, 169 ; to 
Clement of Alexandria, 172, 
173 ; to Tertullian, 174 ; ascen- 
dency of those in a city, 253 ; 
their right to ordain, 176, 177 ; 
according to Firmilian, 177 ; to 
Hilary, 178 — 181 ; to Jerome, 
183—186 ; to Eutychius, of Al- 
exandria, 187 — 188 ; to Planck, 
189 ; to Neander, 189 ; to Blon- 
dell, 189 ; to Dr. Miller, 190, 
191 ; to various Episcopal au- 
thorities, 192 — 197; according 
to Jerome, 215—220 ; to Chry- 
sostom,220,221 ; toTheodoret, 
222, 223 ; to the Greek Scho- 
liast, 223, 224; to Elias, of 



Crete, and to Gregory Naz., 
224 ; to Isidorus, to Bernaldus, 
to Pope Urban, 225 ; to Nicho- 
las Tudeschus, to J. P. Launce- 
lot, and to Gieseler, 226 ; Col- 
lege of, 255. 

IlQeoftvTtQoi, 163. 

President of presbyters., 255. 

Priesthood, Jewish, disowned by 
the church, 45 ; divine right of, 
70. 

Priesthood, discipline by, 114. 

Primate, etc., name of metropol- 
itan, 283. 

Priests, bishops so called, 258 ; 
claim to be divinely appointed, 
297. 

ITqosSqoi, 163. 

IlQosGTok, 158, 168, 169. 

U()0£OTa>Tes> 159, 163. 

IlQoiardfxBvoi, 124, 163. 

UQOordrat, 163. 

Hqocf 7(10.1, 157. 

Protest against secular power, 78 ; 
of Free church in Scotland, 
81, 82. 

Psalmody of the primitive church, 
363 ; the first disciples indited 
and sang songs, 366 ; fragments 
of such in the New Testament, 
366 ; songs of primitive Chris- 
tians, 367 ; Christ the subject 
of their songs, 369 ; one primi- 
tive hymn remains, 369 ; mode 
of singing, 370, 371 ; no in- 
strumental music, 371 ; respon- 
sive singing not general ; all 
the congregation sang, 371 ; 
delight of primitive Christians 
in it, 372 ; power of ancient 
psalmody, 373 ; changes in an- 
cient psalmody, 375 ; claimed 
by the clergy, 379 ; means of 
propagating doctrinal truth, 
383; of moral discipline, 387; 
importance of simplicity in it, 
389. 

Puritans, their wi&Jom and piety, 
241 — 244 ; their legacy to us, 
242 ; defection from their reli- 
gion, 244. 



GENERAL INDEX. 



455 



R 

Receive the Holy Ghost, origin 

of the term, 299. 
Republic of the church, 47, 48. 
Revenues of church held by bish- 
ops, 278, 279 ; taken from the 

laity, 284. 
Riddle, on elections, 69 ; on pres- 

byterian ministry, 137. 
Right divine of bishops, origin of, 

in the Episcopal church, 194, 

318 ; in the ancient church, 

297—300. 
Roman Government, tolerated all 

religions, 27. 
Romish church on equality of 

bishops and presbyters, 144; 

corruption of, 311. 
Ruler of the synagogue, 45; his 

duties, 158, 160. 



Sacrament, how administered 
primitively, 341. 

Scottish Free church, 81. 

Scriptural exposition, importance 
of, 397—399. 

Secular music corrupts the wor- 
ship of the church, 377. 

Secular power, interference, 78. 

Seniores, seniores plebis, 163. 

Shepherd, office of bishop and 
presbyter, 134. 

Silas, the Evangelist, 156. 

Simon is, on discipline by the 
church, 106. 

Singers in a choir in the fourth 
century, 376. 

-liias h^Vtt;, 21, 158, 159,160, 
161. " ' • 

Sovereignty of the church de- 
stroyed, 284. 

Stuart, Prof, on the angel of the 
church, 157 sq. 

Submission, passive doctrine of, 
116. 

Succession, apostolical, absurdity 
of, 145,211—214; origin of de- 
rived from the Romish church, 
295, 296. 

Suffrage, universal, 60 ; right of, 
81 . See Elections. 



Sycophancy of the clergy, 293. 

Sylvanus, the Evangelist, 156. 

Synagogue, endeared to the Jew, 
40 ; ruler, 45 ; popular in gov- 
ernment, 46. 



Temple-service unsuited to the 
church, 39 ; discarded, 45. 

Tertullian, discipline by the 
church, 98; on baptism by laity, 
138; on primitive order, 333; 
on primitive worship and ordi- 
nances, 344 — 347. 

Timothy, supposed bishop, 144; 
not bishop of Ephesus, 152 ; 
Timothy, an evangelist, 153, 
155 ; travels with and for the 
apostle, 154 ; entreated to re- 
main at Ephesus, 154. 

Titus, supposed bishop, 144 ; not 
bishop at Crete, 156. 

Tractarian movement admired by 
Catholics, 362. 

Tractarians assign origin of Lit- 
urgies to the fifth century, 349. 

Trajan, on songs of primitive 
Christians, 366. 

Truth, religious, its simplicity 
gives it power, 352. 

Tumults of elections, 74. 

U 

Unity of the church, unknown in 
apostolical age, 47; absurd, 214; 
influence in establishing the 
Episcopal government, 270. 

Usage, apostolical, 110. 

Usurpation of the bishops in elec- 
tions, in discipline, 116. 



Valens, presbyter, defection of,96. 
Valesius, on discipline by the 

church, 105. 
Vicarious priesthood, 415 — 426. 
Visitors at elections, 75. 

W 

Wealth of the clergy, 286, 287. 
Whately on omissions in Scrip- 
ture, 336, 337. 



456 



GENERAL INDEX. 



Whitby, Dr., on the office of Tim- 
othy and Titus, 156. 

Wiseman, Dr., on the Tractarian 
movement, 362. 

Worship of the church simple, 
3«S, 321, 332 ; does not tolerate 



disorder, 322, 333 ; primitive 
and ordinances, 340, 348. 

XaQiGfiara, 141. 

XeiQOTovTj&tig, etc., 52, 61. 

XsiQoroveTVj meaning of, 61. 

XetQOTovtjoavTtg, 140. 



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5 



iplcg's Note©. 



THE FOUR GOSPELS, WITH NOTES. 

Chiefly Explanatory ; intended principally for Sabbath School Teachers 

and Bible Classes, and as an Aid to Family Instruction. 

By Henry J. Ripley, Newton Theol. Ins. 

Seventh Edition. 

[C? 5 " This work should be in the hands of every student of the Bible, especially 
every Sabbath school and Bible class teacher. It is prepared with special 
reference to this class of persons, and contains a mass of just the kind of 
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Baron Stow, R. H. Neale, R. Ttjrnbtjll, 

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ACTS OP THE APOSTLES, WITH NOTES. 

Chiefly Explanatory. Designed for Teachers in Sabbath Schools 

and Bible Classes, and as an Aid to Family Instruction. 

By Prof. Henry J. Ripley. 

The external appearance of this book, — the binding and the printed 
page, — ' it is a pleasant thing for the eyes to behold.' On examining the 
contents, we are favorably impressed, first, by the wonderful perspicuity, 
simplicity, and comprehensiveness of the author's style ; secondly, by 
the completeness and systematic arrangement of the work, in all its parts, 
the ' remarks ' on each paragraph being carefully separated from the ex- 
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explanations of difficult passages. The work cannot fail to be received 
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ON THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

Designed for the Use of Bible Classes and Sabbath Schools. 

Vol. I. Matthew, — Vol. II. John. 

By Rev. William Hague. 

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scholar such information as may not be within his reach, and also to 
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7 



THE KAREN APOSTLE; 

Or, Memoir of Ko Tiiah-Byu, the first Karen convert, with notices 

concerning his Nation. With maps and plates. By the 

Rev. Francis Mason, Missionary. American 

edition. Edited by Prof. H. J. Riplby, 

of Newton Theol. Institution. 

Second Thousand. 

(Cr* This is a work of thrilling interest, containing the history of a 
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touching evidence contained in this volume, that they are a people pecu- 
liarly susceptible to religious impressions. The account of Mr. Mason 
must be interesting to every one. 



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LATE MISSIONARY TO BURMAH. 
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A New Edition. 

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This is one of the most interesting pieces of female biography which 
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Embracing Hindostan, Malaya, Siam, and China; with notices of nu- 
merous Missionary Stations ; and a full account of the Burman 
Empire ; with Dissertations, Tables, &c. Two volumes 
in one, beautifully illustrated. Sixth edition. 
' By Howard Malcom. D. D. 

IE?" The work has received the highest commendation from the press ; 
and the best proof of the estimation in which it is regarded, is in the unex- 
ampled sale of the work Nearly four thousand copies were sold within 
one year from its first appearance. In its mechanical execution it sur- 
passes any similar work ever attempted in this country. 



MEMOIR OF 

GEORGE DANA BOARDMAN, 

Late Missionary to Burmah, containing much intelligence relative to 

the Burraan Mission. By Rev. Alonzo King. A New Edition. 

With an Introductory Essay, by a distinguished Clergyman. 

Embellished with a Likeness ; a beautiful Vignette, 

< representing the baptismal scene just before 

his death ; and a drawing of his Tomb, 

taken by Rev. H. Malcom, D. D. 

No one can read the Memoir of Boardman, without feeling that the 
religion of Christ is suited to purify the affections, exalt the purposes, and 
give energy to the character. Mr. Boardman was a man of rare excel- 
lence, and his biographer, by a just exhibition of that excellence, has 
rendered an important service, not only to the cause of Christian missions, 
but to the interests of personal godliness. Baron Stow. 



LIFE OF PHILIP MELANCTHON. 

COMPRISING AN ACCOUNT OF THE REFORMATION. 

BY F. A. COX, D. D., LL. D. 

This is a neat edition of a work, which has obtained in England a 
permanent reputation. The acquaintance, which many in this country 
have formed with its author, will induce them to read the book with in- 
creased interest. It is well written, in a style, which, though flowing 
and ornate, is not turgid. It shows all the learning which is appropriate 
to the subject, without an offensive display. The facts concerning Me- 
lancthon are detailed with clearness, and a lucid view is presented of the 
principal personages and events of the age. From no other book, within 
the same compass, could a better knowledge of the rise and progress of 
the Reformation be obtained. For this reason, as well as for the attrac- 
tions which belong to the character of Melancthon, the book is valuable. 
— Christian Review. 



WINCHELL'S WATTS. 

An Arrangement of the Psalms and Hymns of Watts, with a Supplement. 



WATTS AND RIPPON. 

The Psalms and Hymns of Dr. Watts, arranged by Dr. Rippon, with 
Dr. Rippon's Selections, in one volume, new edition, cor- 
rected and improved by Rev. C. G. Sommers, N. Y. 



JAMES'S CHURCH-MEMBER'S GUIDE. 

With an Introductory Essay, by Rev. H. Winslow. 



N E S I M U S : 

OR, THE APOSTOLIC DIRECTION TO CHRISTIAN MASTERS 
IN REFERENCE TO THEIR SLAVES. 

An eminent statesman of the South writes : — ' It is just and philosoph- 
ical, free from fanaticism, and enlightened by the pure spirit of Chris- 
tianity, as well as by correct general information on slavery. It is the 
pious friend of both master and slave ; and this is wise beyond almost 
all Northern treatises.' 9 



DR. HARRIS'S WORKS. 



Probably no writer of modern times has so much engaged the public mind as 
Dr. Harris. All his works liave been favorably received, extensively re- 
viewed^ and both the style and spirit highly recommended. 

MISCELLANIES; 

CONSISTING PRINCIPALLY OF SERMONS AND ESSAYS. 

By J. Harris, D. I) With an Introductory Essay 

and Notes, by Joseph Belcher, D. D. 

THE GREAT COMMISSION; 

The Christian Church constituted, and charged to convey the Gospel to 

the World. With an Introductory Essay, by the 

Rev. Wm. R. Williams, D. D 

Fourth Thousand. 

THE GREAT TEACHER; 

Or, Characteristics of our Lord's Ministry. With an Introductory 

Essay, by Heman Humphrey, D. D. 

Ninth Thousand. 

MAMMON ; 
Or, Covetousness the Sin of the Christian Church. A Prize Essay. 

Seventh Thousand, 

UNION ; 
Or, the Divided Church made One. Second Thousand. 

ZEBULON ; 

A Prize Essay on the Condition and Claims of Sailors. 

THE ACTIVE CHRISTIAN; 

A Selection from the Writings of J. Harris, D. D. 

VITAL CHRISTIANITY: 

ESSAYS AND DISCOURSES ON THE RELIGIONS OF MAN 

AND THE RELIGION OF GOD. 

By Alexander Vinet, D. D., Professor of Theology in Lausanne, 

Switzerland. 

TRANSLATED, WITH AN INTRODUCTION, 

By Rev. Robert Turnbull, Boston. 



THE SAINT'S EVERLASTING REST. 

By the Rev. Richard Baxter. 
10 



THE BAPTISMAL QUESTION. 

Containing Messrs. Cooke and Towxe's ' Hints to an Inquirer, on 

the Subject of Baptism,' — a Review of the ' Hints,' by the 

Rev. William Hague, with a ' Rejoinder,' by 

Cooke and Towxe, and Mr. Hague's 

Examination of the Rejoinder. 



BAPTISM ITS OWN WITNESS. 

Or, Reflections suggested by reading ' The Baptized Child.' By Rev. 
Wm. Hague, Pastor of Federal St. Baptist Church, Boston. 



JEWETT ON BAPTISM. 

The Mode and Subjects of Baptism. By Milo P. Jewett, A. M., 

late professor in Marietta College, and a licensed minister 

of the Presbyterian Church. 

Tenth Thousand. 



THE SACRED MINSTREL. 

A Collection of Church Music, consisting of Psalm and Hymn Tunes, 

Anthems, Sentences, Chants, &c, selected from the most 

popular productions of nearly one hundred 

different authors in this and other 

countries. By N. D. Gould. 



NATIONAL CHURCH HARMONY. 

BY N. D. GOULD: 



A NEW GUIDE FOR EMIGRANTS TO THE WEST. 

By John M. Peck, of Illinois. 

We earnestly wish this most excellent work was in the hands of those 
hundreds of Emigrants, who are now about town, and intend to go 
' West.' The advice and information contained in these three hundred 
and seventy-four pages are really invaluable, and, if attended to, would 
save an immense amount of time, trouble, and last, not least, money. 
The author may be depended upon ; having had ever)' opportunity for 
gathering facts and knowledge on the subject. — N. Y. Messenger. 



CHRISTIAN REVIEW -8 Vols. 

Edited by J. D. Knowles, Barnas Sears, and S. F. Smith. 

\£J^ A few complete sets for sale at the low price of eight dollars per 
set ; odd volumes, one dollar and fifty cents each, except for the Jirst, 
which cannot be sold separate. 

11 



ELEGANT MINIATURE VOLUMES. 

Gilt Edges and beautifully ornamented Covers. 

DAILY MANNA, 

For Christian Pilgrims. By Rev. Baron Stow. 

THE YOUNG COMMUNICANT. 

An Aid to the Right Understanding and Spiritual Improvement of the 

Lord's Supper. 

THE BIBLE AND THE CLOSET. 

Edited by Rev. J. O. Choules. 

THE MARRIAGE RING; 
Or How to make Home Happy. By J. A. James. 

LYRIC GEMS. 

A Collection of Sacred Poetry. Edited by Rev. S. F. Smith. 

THE CYPRESS WREATH. 

A Book of Consolation for those who Mourn. Edited by Rev. Rufus 
W. Griswold. 

THE CASKET OF JEWELS. 

For Young Christians. By J. Edwards and J. A. James. 

THE MOURNER'S CHAPLET. 

An Offering of Sympathy for Bereaved Friends. Selected from Ameri- 
can Poets. Edited by John Keese. 

THE ACTIVE CHRISTIAN. 

From the Writings of John Harris, D. D. 

THE FAMILY CIRCLE. 

Its Affections and Pleasures. Edited by H. A. Graves. 

THE FAMILY ALTAR. 

Or the Duty, Benefits, and Mode of Conducting Family Worship. 
THE ATTRACTIONS OF HEAVEN. 

Edited by Rev. H. A. Graves. 

BI? 2 * Sets of the above, put up in neat boxes, convenient for packing, and 
forming a beautiful " Miniature Library." 12 Vols. 

DOUBLE MINIATURES. 
THE WEDDING GIFT ; or the Duties and Pleasures of Domestic Life. 

Containing the Marriage Ring and the Family Circle. 1 vol. 
THE YOUNG CHRISTIAN'S GUIDE to the Doctrines and Duties of 
a Religious Life. Containing the Casket of Jewels and The Active Chris- 
tian. 1 vol. 
THE MOURNER COMFORTED. Containing the Cypress Wreath, by 
Rev. R. W. Griswold, and the Mourner's Chaplet, by John Keese. 1 vol. 

12 



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